Second Wave Feminism and Religion
At the time of the passage of the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, the second wave of feminism was gaining force in the United States, pushing for gender equality and women's freedom from discrimination. As this movement began challenging the larger structures of patriarchy and oppression, many questioned the role of religious institutions in these structures. Reimagining models for talking about God, taking on new leadership roles, affirming women's experiences, and rejecting patriarchal practices were all ways in which women newly interacted with their faith traditions and religion as a whole.
Feminist Theology and Academic Programs
Greater Boston has proven to be an incubator for feminist theology and the many important discussions about women's place within religious institutions. Mary Daly, a professor of theology at Boston College, was instrumental in bringing to the forefront the ideals of the feminist movement and integrating them into the mainstream theological discussion. Her 1968 book The Church and the Second Sex, a scathing criticism of the Catholic Church's patriarchal attitude towards women, caused such a stir that she was refused tenure and issued a terminal contract by the college. However, the overwhelming outcry by the student body against the university's decision led to her reinstallation as an associate professor in June of 1969.
In the years that followed, a number of academic programs, including women's studies programs at Boston's universities and theological schools, were established to study the wide scope of issues at the intersection of women and religion. Programs such as the Women's Studies in Religion Program (WSRP) at Harvard Divinity School, founded in 1973, provided greater opportunities for women in academia and proved foundational to the study of women in the fields of religion and theology. In 2002, WSRP hosted a conference entitled "Religion and the Feminist Movement," which sought to document the collective narratives of second wave feminist theologians and activists, including Mary Daly, Elisabeth Shüssler Fiorenza, Delores S. Williams, and Rosemary Radford Ruether, whose leadership at Boston-based institutions has been transformative.
The Anna Howard Shaw Center at Boston University School of Theology also provides an avenue for the research and study of women's roles in Christian ministry. The Center promotes equal opportunity ministry while educating the public about women's contributions to the Christian Church, and sponsors research such as the "United Methodist Clergywoman Retention Study." The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, based in the Department of Near Eastern and Judaic Studies at Brandeis University, focuses its research on the interaction of religion, slavery, and sexuality in the teachings of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, and the impact on the lives of contemporary women.
Interfaith Initiatives
Women's interfaith groups have become an important way for women to share their common experiences, build relationships, and learn about one another's faith traditions. Many interfaith groups use alternative models to engage in interfaith dialogue and exchange. The Daughters of Abraham, for example, is a book club comprised of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. This multi-generational group gathers monthly around a shared text that pertains to one or more of their traditions. As Jennifer Peace, co-leader of the Cambridge group, explains, "No one has to be an expert in her own tradition" ; rather, the group strives for a more inclusive, less threatening atmosphere for open conversation. The group has grown to eleven chapters in the Boston area, each tailored to the needs and interests of its specific community. Members describe learning as much about their own tradition as they do about other faiths.
The Faith Quilts Project was an initiative in 2006 that spurred interfaith dialogue among many religious traditions by creating and exhibiting quilts to represent religious beliefs and spiritual journeys. Although this was not exclusively a women's project, the use of quilting--a traditional women's craft--created a new and more accessible medium for interfaith dialogue.
Congregational Study Groups and Courses
Many individual traditions and congregations in Greater Boston have responded to the call to incorporate women's voices and affirm women's experiences without compromising firmly held beliefs. Ma'ayan, a women's torah study initiative, provides inclusive scripture-based classes for Jewish women of all levels of experience in order to "nourish both the spirit and the intellect." They also hold one-day events on topics like health and Jewish law that integrate participants' experiences as women and as Jews. Another example is Touchstones, a women's spirituality group of the First Congregational Church in Winchester. Touchstones hosts a series of workshops and lectures, on topics such as interfaith engagement and new spiritual practices, intended to provoke reflection and stimulate dialogue. Other groups provide skills-based courses for women. The Islamic Society of Boston Cultural Center, for example, offers "Beginning English" and "Economic Empowerment for Women" courses.
Becoming Religious Women
There are also programs that focus on young girls and teens growing up in a faith community. Ma'ayan provides a Mother-Daughter Bat Mitzvah Program that reframes Jewish girls' transformation into women. By presenting a variety of role models and paradigms from Jewish history, the program hopes to bring mothers and daughters closer together and provide a greater understanding of what it means to be a "strong, powerful, successful Jewish woman." "Beneath the Surface," another mother-daughter bat mitzvah program at the Mikvah Hayyim, gives girls and their mothers the chance to understand the ritual significance of their coming-of-age ceremony.
Some congregations have groups specifically for girls, such as a small number of girls' covens organized by various Pagan groups in Greater Boston. Other congregations, such as the Sri Lakshmi Temple in Ashland and Chinmaya Mission Boston in Andover, sponsor youth programs for boys and girls. While aimed primarily at advancing Hindu culture among the next generation, many classes and activities play a role in forming the religious identities and experiences of girls, such as classical Indian dance, which is largely a female art form.
Domestic Violence
In Greater Boston and beyond, uniting around women's common experience often leads to the creation of social action groups. Domestic violence is a widespread issue that affects women across all religious traditions and institutions. Safe Havens Interfaith Partnership Against Domestic Violence is an organization founded in 1991 in order to "empower faith communities and leaders through education, advocacy, and resources to respond to victims of abuse and their families." By connecting faith communities and the many service providers in the Boston area, Safe Havens works toward a "coherent community-wide response" and "interfaith movement to end violence in the home."
Many organizations provide support services to women of all religious backgrounds in a culturally appropriate way. The Asian Task Force Against Domestic Violence serves mainly Asian women and families from a variety of countries. The organization provides advocacy services in twelve different languages as well as informational resources, educational and legal help, and a multi-lingual emergency shelter. Likewise, Casa Myrna Vasquez provides counseling, advocates, shelters, and legal services that are culturally, linguistically, and religiously appropriate. Casa Nueva Vida, an organization that provides housing and services to homeless, single-mother, Latina families, uses an entirely bilingual shelter staff.
Cultural Organizations
Some groups seek to address the specific cultural needs of immigrant communities. Saheli, for example, is an organization based in Burlington that seeks to support South Asian women in Greater Boston in the areas of "career and economic empowerment, physical and mental health, legal and immigration issues, support for families, and social and cultural volunteer opportunities." The community this organization serves is religiously diverse, and as a result its services and programs are sensitive to that fact.
Secular Organizations
There are also organizations with a secular, feminist mission who have come to understand religious communities as potential constituents for and collaborators in their mission. As an example, Women's Actions for New Directions (WAND), which "empowers women to act politically to reduce violence and militarism, and redirect excessive military resources toward unmet human and environmental needs," is a national organization with its headquarters in Arlington. WAND developed a program called "Women of Faith: In Action for New Directions," and a curriculum called "Faith Seeking Peace." Though primarily geared toward Christian communities, WAND hopes to eventually expand the scope of this program to reflect the broader religious diversity in Greater Boston.
Conclusion
These are but a sampling of organizations, centers, and initiatives that have been developed for and by women in Greater Boston. These efforts should be considered as part of a larger national and international women's movement, which is explored in the Pluralism Project Women's Networks Initiative. Women activists, academics, advocates, artists, religious leaders and laypeople will continue to forge strategic partnerships and identify common ground. Through each of these various streams of work, women are enriching religious experience, expression, and understanding in Greater Boston and beyond.