The Pluralism Project at Harvard University

Malaysia is a country that is “truly Asia.” This is exemplified in the different ethnic and religious groups of Malaysia: Malays, Chinese, Indians, Portuguese and the indigenous groups. As a result, Malaysians are exposed to different religious and ethnic traditions on a daily basis creating a multi-cultural society. Islam is constitutionally recognized as the official religion of the country; however Malaysia remains a secular state. Malaysians are free to practice their religion as long as they do not interfere with Islam. Despite the secularity declared in the constitution, recent religious controversies have suggested that the country is elevating the role of Islam.

Statistics and Demographics

According to the US International Religious Freedom Report 2006 on Malaysia, the population is approximately 25.6 million. When assessing the Malaysian population, it is particularly difficult to separate ethnicity from religion. 51 percent of the population is Malay, all of whom are Muslim. Chinese make up 26 percent of the population; most are Buddhists who combine Taoist and Confucian practices, while a small number identify as Christian. Indians comprise 7 percent of the population, most of whom are Hindu with a small minority of Sikhs, Muslims and Christians. The remaining 16 percent of the population is made up of Eurasians, migrant workers who are mostly Indonesian, and various ethnic groups such as indigenous groups in the Borneo region (Peletz 2005: 243).

• The Malaysian tourism board’s website provides a brief background to the multicultural heritage of Malaysia.
• On January 29, 2007, The Star, Malaysia’s English daily newspaper, published an article about Malaysia’s multicultural identity. The article can be found here.

Religious History of Malaysia

The land of Malaysia has been a center of trade and commerce since the 10th century CE, when ancient Malay kingdoms were discovered in the northern peninsular region of Malaysia. Most of these kingdoms were under Buddhist or Hindu influence. During that time, the region was highly coveted due to its geographical position, situated in between the Chinese and Indian empires.

Islam arrived in modern day Malaysia in the 14th century with the arrival of Arab traders. Islam became the dominant religion of the region with the establishment of the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century. The wide spread of Islam was a direct reflection of the Sultanate’s far-reaching political and military influence.

The Portuguese invasion of Malacca in the 16th century marked the beginning of the colonization period in Malaysia. During this time, Christianity was brought to Malaysia. St. Francis Xavier, the co-founder of the Jesuit movement, traveled from India to Malacca in 1545 as part of his missionary movement. He would later continue his missionary activity to China, where he passed away in 1552.

The Portuguese ruled for another century until the Dutch gained control of Malacca. Malaysia was under Dutch rule until Britain gained control over the whole of Malaysia in the late 18th century. Independence was granted to Malaysia in 1957. The second wave of Christian missionary work occurred during the colonization period, when missionary schools were established to both educate and Christianize Malaysians.

There have been two major waves of Chinese migration to Malaysia. The first wave occurred in the early 16th century when Chinese traders opted to stay in Malacca. This migration was made possible by the good relations between the Ming Dynasty and the Sultanate of Malacca. The second wave of migration took place during the tin mining boom that began in the late 19th century. British officials invited the Chinese people, who were experts in mining, to be a part of the Malaysian mining industry. Today, the Chinese-Malaysian population is quite diverse and uses many different dialects, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, Teochew, Hainan and Fuchow.

The Chinese immigration to Malaysia introduced Buddhism to the country. Malaysian Buddhists practice a kind of Buddhism that is fused with Taoism. Some Malaysian Buddhists practice Mahayana while others follow Theravada Buddhism. The former school was brought to Malaysia by Chinese immigrants while the latter is a result of the influence of Thai Buddhism into the northern regions of Malaysia.

The Indian population, originally from Southern India, migrated to Malaysia to fulfill the demand for workers in the plantation and railway sector during the early 20th century. Additionally, some Sikhs immigrated to Malaysia and generally enrolled in the army or the police force. Most of the Indian immigrants in Malaysia are Hindus who adhere to the Saivite tradition of Southern Indian Hinduism which practices devotion to Lord Shiva, while the Sikhs practice Sikhism.

• An article from tamilnation.org about the Indian Malaysian Diaspora.

Due to the multi-religious setting of Malaysia and the frequent interactions between people of different religions, interfaith marriages are common. Conversions are also common, with the exception of conversions from Islam.

As stated above, Malaysia gained its independence in 1957. The first general elections in Malaysia were held in 1955 and were won by the political party called The Alliance (Parti Perikatan). The Alliance was actually a coalition of 3 political parties that was comprised of the 3 major ethnic groups in the country: the Malays, Chinese and Indians. With its win, The Alliance was given the mandate to govern the country.

The racial riots on May 13, 1969 changed Malaysia’s racial relations. The riots were caused by the vast economic disparities between the ethnic groups. As a result, the government implemented the New Economic Plan (NEP), a controversial reverse affirmative action policy designed to help integrate the Malay population into the country’s economy. In the last thirty years, the NEP has managed to create a viable Malay middle class in Malaysia.

• On August 6, 2005, Andy Ho, a senior writer for the New Straits Times wrote an article titled, “Reviving NEP, UMNO’s race card again”, documenting the politics regarding the NEP.
• The renowned Malaysian anthropologist, KS Jomo, has written a paper for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) entitled, “The New Economic Policy and Interethnic Relations” (2001).

Further Historical Resources

• Malaysia’s Ministry of Tourism’s website provides a brief overview of the country’s history.
• Hefner, Robert W., Ed. 2001. The Politics of Multiculturalism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
  
• Hooker, Virginia Matheson. 2003. A Short History of Malaysia: Linking East and West. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin.
  
• Loh Kok Wah, Francis, & Khoo Boo Teik, Eds. 2002. Democracy in Malaysia: Discourses and Practices. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon.
  Series: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies; Democracy in Asia.
  
• Verma, Vidhu. 2002. Malaysia, State and Civil Society in Transition. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.

Constitution and Religious Freedom

Constitution
According to the Malaysian constitution, Islam is the official religion of Malaysia but other religions can be practiced in peace and harmony (Article 3). However, the role of Islam is limited by the fact that Article 4(1) states that the Constitution is the supreme law of the federation. Therefore shari’a, or Islamic law, is not above the constitution.

The right to an individual’s freedom of religion is protected under the Constitution. According to Article 11, every person has the right to profess and practice her or his religion and to propagate it. However, Article 11(4) affirms that state law and federal law may control or restrict the propagation of any religious doctrine amongst Muslims (Faruqi 2005: 51). Furthermore, this article allows each religious group to establish and maintain institutions for religious or charitable purposes and to acquire and own property and hold and administer it in accordance with law (Article 11(3)).

• For a more detailed explanation of Article 11, please refer to an article by Aliran, a Malaysian website aiming to promote justice, freedom and solidarity.

According to the Constitution, an individual is ruled under civil or statutory law, which was introduced by the British in the 19th century. However, for Malays as Muslims, they are also held under the rule of the shari’a, which is mainly confined to matters regarding family and inheritance (Faruqi 2005: 50).

The constitution defines Malays as those citizens who “profess the religion of Islam, habitually speak the Malay language, and conform to Malay customs,” and “was before Independence born in the Federation or in Singapore or born of parents one of whom was born in the Federation or in Singapore, or is on that day domiciled in the Federation or in Singapore” (Article 160). Additionally, Malays “identify themselves as Sunni Muslims who adhere to the Shafi’i legal school of Islam” (Peletz 2002: 6).

Malays are entitled to special provisions in the form of public services, education and business licenses, without harming the rights of other groups (Article 153). This is part of the political bargain between the Malay, Chinese and Indian political factions in exchange for their citizenship prior to independence. In exchange for allowing these special provisions, non-Malays are entitled to Malaysian citizenship. According to Robert Hefner, a notable anthropologist of Southeast Asian Islam, Malaysia is not founded on “individual rights but on what political theorists have come to refer to as ‘ethnically differentiated citizenship’” (Hefner 2001: 29). This explanation provides insight into the frequent religious and ethnic tensions in Malaysia.

Government Policy and Practice
There is a constant debate about the government’s role in promoting Islam in the country. Many Malays believe that the government should take a more active role in promoting Islam in Malaysia. However, Malaysians of other races argue that this would impinge on their religious freedom. Additionally, the intertwining of religion and ethnicity in Malaysia further complicate discussions on religion, and often are the cause of tension.

Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi has promoted the concept of Islam Hadhari (Civilizational Islam) as a way to counter the various problems that affect the Islamic world today. Islam Hadhari is a set of ten principles which calls for social, economic and political progress in the Islamic world. The 10 principles are:

i. Faith and taqwa towards Allah S.W.T.
ii. Fair and trustworthy government
iii. Citizens with a spirit of freedom
iv. Mastery of knowledge
v. Comprehensive and balanced economic development
vi. Quality of life
vii. Protection of women
viii. Steadfast in culture and morality
ix. Protection and conservation of nature
x . Strength in (national) defence.

• The official website on Islam Hadhari can be found here.

Recent controversies in Malaysia have led other religious groups to question Badawi’s sincerity in promoting the values of Islam Hadhari because these controversies went against some of the 10 principles of Islam Hadhari. The recent case of a woman who was unable to convert from Islam to Christianity has sparked international attention. Originally a Muslim, Lina Joy, formally known as Azlina Jalani, converted to Christianity in 1998. This issue was brought to light when she tried to change her religious affiliation on her national identification card from Muslim to Christian. Joy was attempting to uphold a new law that requires Malaysians to declare their religious affiliation through the National Registry Department (NRD) in 1999. As a result of this new law, conversions from Islam to another faith became a public issue, as the citizens are legally required to have an accurate religious status. While a legal religious status might strike some as insignificant, it is important to note that Muslims in Malaysia are ruled under the shari’a as well. Hence, this complicates the issues of marriage, property, and divorce. For someone like Joy, who wanted to marry her Christian fiancé, her fiancé would first need to convert to Islam to be able to marry her.

Joy was not allowed to change her religious affiliation and she took this matter to the civil court with the argument that “because she renounced her Muslim faith...Malaysia’s Islamic Shariah courts...did not have jurisdiction over her” (Perlez 2006). In addition, she believed that she has the constitutional right to adhere to her religion of choice (Wu 2006). However, the court dismissed her application, “pointing to provisions in the federal constitution privileging Islam, and defining a Malay to be a Muslim, Malays could not renounce Islam at all...because they were defined by the federal constitution to be a person of the Islamic faith...further, the judge reasoned, if the civil court recognized Lina Joy’s new faith, it would open the floodgates to other converts” (Wu 2006).

In denying her application, the civil court subsequently referred her case to the shari’a court. This is because “according to the civil court, a conversion out of Islam was a religious matter that could only be dealt with by the shari’a court”. In this situation “the lower civil court disregarded the federal constitution’s status as the highest law of the land and ceded jurisdiction to the shari’a court” (Wu 2006). This meant that Joy would be tried for being an apostate (murtad) and a failure to repent would mean a sentence of several years in an Islamic rehabilitation center (Perlez 2006). On 30 May, 2007, Joy's request was further rejected by the Federal Court, the country's highest civilian authority, which again deferred to the shari'a court, although as a Christian, Joy does not recognize the shari'a court as authoritative.

• RDN compilation on the Lina Joy controversy can be found here.
  
• An Asian Sentinel article dated 27 April 2007: “Doing the impossible: Quitting Islam in Malaysia”.

Another controversial conversion case is that of the deceased M. Moorthy, a member of the first Malaysian group to successfully climb Mount Everest in 1997. Upon Moorthy’s death, the Federal Territory Islamic Affairs Department (JAWI) tried to claim his body because they contended that he had converted to Islam before his death. Moorthy’s wife, Kaliammal Sinnasamy, rejected the claims and applied for a court hearing to get the rights to perform a Hindu cremation on Moorthy’s body. The civil court rejected Sinnasamy’s case and ceded jurisdiction to the shari’a courts because Moorthy was supposedly a Muslim and thus was a subject of the shari’a court. The shari’a court ruled that Moorthy died a Muslim and had to be given a Muslim burial. This ruling was given in spite of the fact that Sinnasamy had stated that she was unaware of her husband’s conversion to Islam because he had always been a pious Hindu.

• RDN compilations on this controversy can be found here.

As a response to these incursions upon the right to freedom of religion, a group started a campaign to “reaffirm the supremacy of the Constitution.” This group calls itself Article 11 and is a coalition of fourteen NGOs which includes the Islamic feminist group, Sisters in Islam, They claim that “the country is inexorably moving towards an Islamic theocratic state in a silent and insidious manner as officers of the government, judiciary and parliament are abdicating their duty to defend the secular constitution” (Kuppusamy 2006). As a response, Prime Minister Badawi banned the campaign because it was “deemed to cause tension in our multi-religious society” (Habib and Shari 2006).

• RDN compilations on this issue can be found here.

Another issue that has arisen in relation to the right to religious freedom is the recent controversy regarding a spate of temple destructions, primarily involving Hindu temples, in order to make way for development. The destruction of these temples has created outrage for its apparent abuse of the Federal Constitution which gives the rights to Malaysians to practice their religion freely within their own religious institutions (Article 11(3)). The destruction of the temples took place under the supervision of state municipal councils who claimed that many of the temples are illegal because they lack proper registration and are built on government lands. However, counter-arguments have asserted that most of the temples were built prior to Independence in 1957 to house Indian workers in the plantation sector, and they were built with permission from the landowners (Bukhari 2006).

• RDN compilations on this controversy can be found here.

Muslim women have also been marginalized in present day Malaysia. On 23 December 2005, the Upper House of the Malaysian Parliament passed the Islamic Family Law Bill (Federal Territories Amendment) of 2005, which “makes it easier for Muslim men to take multiple wives, to divorce them and to take a share of their property” (Kent 2006). The Bill was passed despite objections from women’s groups and women senators in the parliament. Marina Mahathir, an outspoken AIDS and women’s rights activist, compared Muslim women in Malaysia to black South Africans during apartheid.

• A compilation of BBC articles regarding this issue can be found here.

According to the U.S International Religious Freedom Report on Malaysia, government-controlled bodies have exerted pressure on non-Muslim women to wear headscarves (hijab). In November 2005, the minister of higher education asserted that non-Muslim female students in the International Islamic University must wear headscarves during lectures and graduation ceremonies. Additionally, in March 2006, the leader of the Royal Malaysian Police stated that all female police officers, including non-Muslims, should wear headscarves during public ceremonies.

The Malaysian government is also wary of Islamic deviationist sects. In 2005, the government sanctioned the destruction of the Sky Kingdom cult (or more popularly known as the “teapot cult”) for their heretical Islamic beliefs. According to Jonathan Kent from the BBC, “the Sky Kingdom is an inter-faith sect which claims to promote harmony between all of Malaysia’s religious groups”.

• The BBC article on the Sky Kingdom can be found here.

Interfaith Activity

While Malaysians continue to engage in inter-cultural activities, such as joint celebrations (kongsi raya) of Eid and Chinese New Year, organized interfaith activity is rare. Malaysians are discouraged from talking about religion for fears of triggering racial unrest. The creation of the Article 11 commission, an interfaith group, to discuss Malaysians’ freedom of religion has been quashed by Prime Minister Badawi. Similarly, the proposed formation of an Interfaith Council (IFC) in 2005 has drawn strong rebukes, mostly from Islamic groups, resulting in the government’s move to ban any discussion about the creation of IFC.

• The Pluralism Project’s research report on religious freedom in Malaysia can be found here.

Interfaith Centers/Organizations

JUST
JUST is a non-governmental organization that is established to raise awareness about the global injustices that are taking place. Additionally, JUST also monitors the political and social situation in Malaysia.

• The Pluralism Project’s profile on JUST can be found here.

Sisters in Islam
Similar to JUST, Sisters in Islam is a non-profit organization that affirms that “Islam... upholds the principles of equality, justice, freedom and dignity.” Sisters in Islam is especially active in promoting Muslim women’s rights. Apart from that, Sisters in Islam also actively monitors the socio-political situation in Malaysia.

ALIRAN
ALIRAN is an organization which aims to “raise social consciousness and encourage social action that will lead to social justice.”

Relevant Research Centers

International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC) at the International Islamic University of Malaysia
ISTAC is a research institute founded in 1987 by the late Professor Dr. Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, an eminent Malay scholar whose works have revived academic interest in Southeast Asia. ISTAC studies the relevance of Islamic thought and its civilization in modernity. As such, the research institute studies the relationship between Islam and science, other religions and secularization.

Asia-Europe Institute at the University of Malaya
The Asia-Europe Institute is a research center in the field of social sciences for postgraduate students. They aim to “to develop better understanding of the cultures, histories, politics, institutions, economics, business and legal practices of both regions.” Additionally, the Institute also conducts research on religion and ethnicity in Malaysia.

Konrad Adenauer Foundation (KAF)
This foundation strives to “implement the principle of non-violent conflict resolution, supporting democracy and the rule of law, respecting human rights, furthering mutual understanding, respect, appreciation and cooperation between different nations, cultures, ethnics and religions, promoting the unique German concept of social market economy.” Apart from that, KAF’s activities are also devoted to topics such as religious pluralism in Malaysia. They are active in the translation of English scholarly works on Islam into Malay.

Religious Minority Organizations

Malaysian Buddhist Directory Online
This website provides information on all the Buddhist temples and organizations in Malaysia.

Soka Gakkai Malaysia
This organization seeks to promote the Nichiren Daishonin's Buddhist philosophy of compassion and respect for the sanctity of life. It has its own building, the Soka Gakkai Cultural Center (Wisma Kebudayaan SGM) which houses all its events. Additionally, the Soka Gakkai Women’s team publishes a journal titled, Voices of Peace, which addresses issues on peace, culture, and education.

Malaysia Hindu Sangam
This is the official organization for Malaysian Hindus. The website of this organization has a calendar of Hindu festivals, different events throughout the country and it also has an e-Hindu library which contains translations of works such as the Bhagavad Gita.

Indian Malaysian Online
This website provides news and other resources to the Indian Malaysian community.
National Evangelical Christian Fellowship of Malaysia (NECF)
NECF is an organization that represents all the evangelical churches in Malaysia.

Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Archdiocese of Kuching
The two archdioceses which represent all Catholic churches in Malaysia.

Other Resources

Pluralism Project Resources
"Malaysia, Truly Asia? Religious Pluralism in Malaysia" (2006)
A report on the state of religious freedom in Malaysia

Religious Diversity News Coverage
Our database of international religious diversity news searched by country: Malaysia

Online Articles and other resources
"Freedom of Religion in Malaysia?"
A discussion on religious freedom in Malaysia, hosted by the Australian Broadcasting Company.

Bibliography

Bukhari, Z. 2006, ‘Temple demolition stokes Malaysian tensions’, Asia Times Online (July 11, 2006) [Online] Available: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HG11Ae01.html

Faruqi, S. S. 2005, ‘Secularism or Theocracy-A Study of the Malaysian Constitution’ in Is Malaysia and Islamic State? , ed. A.R. Baginda and P. Schier, Malaysian Strategic Research Center and Konrad-Adenauer-Foundation, Kuala Lumpur.

Habib, S and I. Shari. 2006, ‘PM: Discussions will raise tension’, The Star Online (July 26, 2006) [Online] Available: http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2006/7/26/nation/14951573&sec=nation

Hefner, R. W. 2001, ‘Introduction: Multiculturalism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia’ in The Politics of Multiculturalism, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Kuppusamy, B. 2006, Rediscovering Secularism, Inter Press Service News Agency (December 4, 2006) [Online] Available: http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=32489

Peletz, M.G. 2002, Islamic Modern: Religious Courts and Cultural Politics in Malaysia, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Perlez, J. 2006, ‘Once Muslim, Now Christian and Caught in the Courts’, The New York Times (August 24, 2006)

Wu, A. 2006, ‘Lina Joy’, The Wall Street Journal (September 7, 2006).