The Pluralism Project at Harvard University

Indonesia is the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world, and is also home to significant religious minorities of Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, Confucians, and others. Indonesia has a long history of cultural pluralism with the co-existence of many different religions, sects, and cultural groups. Currently, the government guarantees religious freedom to six officially recognized religions, however there is frequent conflict and controversy between the government and religious communities. In addition, there has been recent violent conflict between Muslims and Christians in certain areas of Indonesia. In recognition of these tensions, several interfaith organizations and centers have been created to promote respect, dialogue, and cooperation among religious groups. Today, Indonesia is the site of the world’s largest democratic Islamic movement and provides a striking example of Islamic history and politics in a modern and pluralistic society.

Statistics and Demographics

According to a report of the Indonesian Central Statistic Bureau in 2000, respondents identified as 88.2% Muslim, 5.9% Protestant, 3.1% Catholic, 1.8% Hindu, 0.8 % Buddhist, and 0.2% "other." "Other" includes traditional indigenous religions, other Christian groups, and Judaism. The majority of Indonesian Muslims are Sunni; however there are significant populations of Shi'a Muslims (over one million) as well as some other sects, such as the Ahmadiyya sect and syncretist traditions. In some areas of Indonesia it is difficult to find accurate statistics on religious belief because people who do not identify as one of the six religions recognized by the government (Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism as of 2006) go undocumented.

• For a more detailed breakdown of religious demography, refer to the US International Religious Freedom Report (2006)
• The Indonesian Ministry of Religion (in Indonesian) gives in-depth religious statistics organized according to region and population.

Religious History of Indonesia

Today Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with approximately 88% of the population identified as Muslim. However, Indonesia is far from being homogeneous; it has a long and rich history of religious diversity. This diversity draws from Indonesia’s history of trade, immigration, European colonization, and Indonesia's recent post-colonial political history, all of which contribute to an environment of dynamic interaction between different cultures and religions. Current government methods for collecting religious demographic information are based on the policy of six officially recognized religions, within which all citizens must identify. However, this policy often over-simplifies and obscures the complexity of religious identity and activity at work in Indonesia.

The indigenous religious traditions of the Indonesian islands form a backdrop for the adaptation and synthesis of other religions into Indonesian culture. These indigenous traditions share several elements including: a balance between light and dark forces, the immanence of life (animism), and rituals and ceremonies for life and death. Other religions which arrived in Indonesia, starting with Hinduism and continuing through Buddhism, Islam and Christianity, were transformed by a process known as Javanization. Through this process incoming religions interacted with pre-existing indigenous values, institutions, and rituals, and eventually developed new and hybrid forms.

Hinduism arrived in Indonesia as early as the second century CE through Indian traders on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Sulawesi. By the sixth century Buddhism had also taken root in Indonesia, and peacefully coexisted and blended with Hinduism and preexisting native traditions. The Hindu-Javanese culture was rich and vibrant and at one time spread across all of current Indonesia, culminating in the Majapahit Empire in the fourteenth century. The dominant belief systems of the Majapahit Empire were Hinduism, with either Siva or Visnu as the principle deities, and Mahayana Buddhism. In addition there was a diversity of Hindu-and Buddhist-derived sects, ascetic groups and yogic traditions, and ritual practices belonging to ancient indigenous faiths, which held various fertility, nature-centered, ancestor and death-related beliefs. The general populace also held firm to ancient beliefs in gods, spirits, and other protectors (Fic 88-89). Today the Majapahit Empire is upheld as a golden age of culture and prosperity and looked to as a source of inspiration for the modern Hindu revival movement.

Arab Muslim traders began commerce with Indonesia in fourth century CE; however, Indonesians did not begin converting to Islam until the eleventh century. By the thirteenth century Islam was established in North Sumatra. It then spread through Malaya, Brunei, Java and Malacca. Two main factors contributed to Islamic conversions in Java: 1) Islamic traders who married local women and set up Islamic commercial communities on the coast and 2) Sufi teachers who penetrated the heartland of Java and taught mystic doctrines which were easily added to the existing synthesis of Hindu and Buddhist traditions (Fic 149-150). By the fifteenth century the Majapahit Empire was in decline, and in 1520 the last Hindu kingdom in Java fell to the Sultanate of Demak. The last major independent empire on Java, prior to Dutch colonization was the Sultanate of Mataram, which ruled from the late sixteenth century to the early eighteenth century.

Although the majority of the population eventually converted to Islam, Indonesians retained much of the previous blend of Hindu, Buddhist, and native religious traditions, with unique practices, rituals, and ceremonies. Anthropologist of religion Clifford Geertz popularized the terms abagan Islam and santri Islam, to refer to the syncretic, indigenous and more ritualistic forms of Islam found in Java, versus the more pious, orthodox, Arab-influenced form. Until recently, the majority of Muslims in Indonesia would be categorized as abagan Muslims, with a minority of santri Muslims. Since Indonesia’s independence there has been a trend of Islamization, increase in observance and turn towards a less culturally-influenced, more universal form of Islam. Today, the largest Muslim organizations in Indonesia are the “traditionalists” (Nahdlatul Ulama) and “modernists" (Muhammadiyah), both promoting santri Islam.

Christianity arrived in Indonesia during the sixteenth century through two means: Catholic missionaries brought by the Portuguese, and Protestant missionaries brought by the Dutch. Initially Christianity mixed with native ethnic traditions, creating hybrid forms that still survive in more isolated and rural locations. Christians (Catholics and Protestants combined) currently make up around seven percent of the population. In the twentieth century there has been an increase in missionary efforts and growth of both Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, particularly concentrated in Papua, Flores, and Sulawesi.

The period of Dutch colonization, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century was also the period of the highest rates of Chinese immigration to Indonesia. Traditionally these Chinese communities have taken up business and professional employment, belonging predominantly to the middle class. Chinese in Indonesia have faced great discrimination, prejudice, and even violence, during different periods in history, for example, during the anti-communist purge under Suharto in 1965. Today communities of Chinese descent in Indonesia maintain a variety of religious traditions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, and Christianity.

The Dutch colonization of Indonesia, beginning in the seventeenth century, brought about changes in Indonesian pluralism as the Dutch imposed their own beliefs and policies towards religious and cultural authorities. This often resulted in an increase of Protestant missionary activity. At the same time, the Dutch supported pre-existing Islamic governance structures in order to provide for more stable trading partners. This in turn led to decreased support for the traditional Muslim aristocracy because the populace associated them with the Dutch, and to the rising authority of rural Islamic boarding schools and mystical leaders. These leaders later became the basis for independence movements, which in the twentieth century coalesced around either Muslim or popular nationalist parties. In post-colonial Indonesia, several presidential regimes, most notably those of Sukarno (1945-1967) and Suharto (1967-1998), created public policies that favored some religious groups and discriminated against others.

In 1945 President Sukarno established the doctrine of Pancasila as the foundation of the new constitution. Pancasila's first principle states that the state is based on "belief in the one and only God." The adoption of Pancasila occurred over the defeat of the so-called Jakarta Charter, a proposed amendment to the Indonesian declaration of independence that would make Indonesia a Muslim nation by stating "the obligation to practice shari`ah for its followers." Under Suharto, the government officially recognized five religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism and Buddhism. Pancasila, the influence of shari`ah in national policy, and the position of official national religions are still topics of debate in contemporary Indonesia. See section on Pancasila and Government Practice and Policy.

An interesting phenomenon in the current Indonesian religious landscape is the Hindu revival movement, centered in Bali and Java. Unlike the rest of Indonesia, Bali retained the pre-Islamic Hindu-Javanese culture, and is still predominantly identified as Hindu. Hinduism was recognized as one of the officially designated religions in 1962, primarily in response to activism from Balinese Hindus. The largest Balinese Hindu organization, Parisada Hindu Dharma Bali, later changed its name to Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia, in order to redefine Hinduism as a national rather than solely Balinese religion.

Beginning in the 1970s, various ethnic groups on other islands began to identify as Hindu, often seeking protection for their indigenous ancestor religion under the official title of Hinduism. New Hindu communities developed in Java, centered on the restoration and rededication of ancient Hindu temples such as Pura Mandaragiri Sumeru Agung, located on the slope of Mt. Sumeru, Java's highest mountain. Often these communities were financially supported by donors from Bali, but later grew through mass conversions and become sites of pilgrimage. Now the Hindu revival also has a strong utopian flavor; the popularity of prophecies from ancient Hindu Javanese personages such as Sabdapalon and Jayabaya, predict a dark age, identified with the current political upheaval, corruption and violence, to be followed by a golden age of peace and prosperity. The case of the Hindu revival is one of the many ways in which Indonesia's pluralistic history interacts with the Indonesian people's current political, social, and spiritual goals.

Being the world's third largest democracy as well as a Muslim-majority country, Indonesia has become the site for studying the development of modern Islam and democracy. Robert Hefner writes, "Today Indonesia deserves every democrat's praise for having created the largest movement for a democratic Islam in the world" (Hefner, Politics of Multiculturalism, 45). Indonesia’s history of diversity makes a rich precedent and foundation for the development of civic democratic society. In addition, the case of Indonesia provides an alternative to studies of Islamic politics focused on the Middle East. Hefner states, “Marginalized in treatments of classical Islam, Indonesia must be central to any effort to come to terms with the diversity of modern Muslim politics” (Hefner, Civil Islam, 6).

The situation of religion in Indonesia, and Islam in particular, is complex and undergoing constant change. There are current trends that point to an increase in more orthodox, conservative interpretations of Islam. This is evidenced by various local counties, in particular Aceh, enacting versions of shari`ah-influenced law, and the existence of extremist and militant organizations such as Laskar Jihad and Jemaah Islamiyah. Some groups argue for abandoning Pancasila and instituting a fully Islamic state.

On the other hand, the largest Muslim organizations in Indonesia, Muhammadiyah (1912) and Nahdlatul ‘Ulama (NU) (1926), coming from the modernist and neo-traditionalist movements respectively, are committed to upholding Pancasila and not instituting a Muslim state and promoting a pluralistic democratic state. In addition, organizations such as the Liberal Islam Network (1999) are dedicated to advancing liberal Islam, which it defines as struggling for civil liberties such as freedom of expression, minority rights, women’s rights and freedom of religion. Finally, although there are several political parties that have been founded on religious grounds, elections routinely demonstrate the general population's support for Pancasila and for continuing a history of tolerance and diversity for the many religions co-existing in Indonesia.

Further Historical Resources

• The US Library of Congress gives short descriptions of the history of religious groups and minorities which can be accessed through their Country Study of Indonesia
• The Department of Religion and Philosophy, St Martin's College, UK offers a general history of religion in Indonesia.
• The Department of Religion and Philosophy, St. Martin's College, UK, also offers descriptions of various indigenous traditions of Indonesia.
• The Embassy of Indonesia has articles on the history of the Hindu and Muslim empires.
• Wikipedia has a variety of articles detailing the history of Indonesia through the various empires and political regime changes, as well as articles on religion in Indonesia (both general and according to religion), which can be accessed through the Indonesia main page.
• "Great Expectations: Hindu Revival Movements in Java, Indonesia," by Thomas Reuter examines the history and implications of the Hindu revival movement.
• Fic, Victor M. From Majapahit and Sukuh to Megawati Sukarnoputri: Continuity and Change in Pluralism of Religion, Culture and Politics of Indonesia from the XV to the XXI Century. New Dehli: Abhinav Publications, 2003.
• Hefner, Robert W. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.
• Hefner, Robert W. Introduction to The Politics of Multiculturalism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Edited by Robert W. Hefner. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2001.

Constitution and Religious Freedom

Pancasila
Although Indonesia is predominantly Muslim, it is not an Islamic state. Indonesia's constitution, as developed in 1945, is based on Pancasila (five principles): "belief in the One and Only God; just and civilized humanity; the unity of Indonesia; deliberation for consensus; and social justice for all of Indonesia’s people." Furthermore, the Constitution states that, "the state shall be based on the belief in the One and Only God," and that each person is guaranteed "the freedom of worship, each according to his/her own religion or belief."

During the debate over the constitution in 1945, an amendment known as the Jakarta Charter was proposed, which would make Indonesia a Muslim nation by stating "the obligation to practice shari`ah for its followers." However, this amendment was defeated, and Pancasila was adopted as a philosophy for embracing religious diversity and freedom. Through Pancasila the state claims to be founded on religious and moral values common to all religions, including Islam. At the same time, Robert Hefner adds, "Pancasila also rejects the Western liberal idea that religion is merely a matter of private personal belief" (Hefner, Politics of Multiculturalism, 35). After the adoption of Pancasila, religion was acknowledged as a subject for national policy, a move that has led to the various conflicts between government and religious institutions seen today.

• The University of Texas provides an English translation of two versions of the 1945 Constitution.
• The US Library of Congress gives short descriptions of Pancasila which can be accessed through their Country Study of Indonesia
• English information on the Department of Religious Affairs.
• The official site for the Indonesian government [in Indonesian].

Government Policy and Practice

The US International Religious Freedom Report (2006) presents the US government’s findings on the state of religious freedom in Indonesia. It documents government and legal policy on religion, and also covers controversies and clashes between government policy and religious groups. In 2006 the report concludes that while the government generally respects religious rights, there continue to be some occasions of religious discrimination and restrictions for unrecognized religions. In addition the government has sometimes tolerated abuse of religious groups by individuals, or failed to punish the perpetrators.

The Indonesian government officially recognizes six religions in Indonesia: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and, as of early 2006, Confucianism. Religious groups other than these six must register with a different government department as social or cultural organizations, restricting their religious activities. Citizens are required to display their religion on National Identification Cards (KTP); members of unrecognized religions or atheists must select one of the "authorized" religions in order to obtain a KTP. In addition, atheists, members of unrecognized religions, interfaith families, or even some non-Muslims have difficulty obtaining registration for births, marriages, building permits, event permits, and in other interactions with the government.

Other government ordinances relating to religion include regulations on building houses of worship, guidelines for receiving foreign religious aid, and a ban on proselytizing. The Child Protection Act of 2002 makes it a crime to try to convert minors to another religion through "tricks" or "lies"; this was recently used to convict three Christian women for trying to convert Muslim children. In addition, Indonesia's criminal code makes spreading hatred, heresy, and blasphemy a crime; this has been used frequently against minority Muslim sects. In 2003 an education law was passed requiring elementary and secondary schools to provide children with religious instruction in their own faith; again students must pick from the officially recognized religions of Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism (this law was passed prior to the government’s recognition of Confucianism; additional reports warn of lack of classes in minority religions in general).

Although Indonesia is not an Islamic state, the question of implementing shari`ah (Islamic law) is still an area of contestation. Some Islamic groups argue for more compliance between official law and shari`ah, even advocating for Indonesia to become a completely Islamic state. However, Muslim proponents of pluralism and liberal Islam, as well as members of other religions, want to protect freedom of religion and the secular state. For example, a pending draft of an anti-pornography bill led to fierce debates (both for and against). Furthermore, many individual regencies and municipalities have enacted shari`ah based regulations at the local level. In 2003, the government formally established shari`ah courts in the region of Aceh. Since then Aceh has had a number of cases involving shari`ah and attempts to increase education about and compliance with shari`ah. Throughout Indonesia shari`ah is brought to bear on numerous subjects, ranging from laws prohibiting prostitution, gambling, and the selling of alcohol, to enforcing proper modest dress, to divorce codes.

• "Religion and the Indonesian Constitution: A Recent Debate" by Nadirsyah Hoden is an article documenting the position of shari`ah in Indonesian law and the recent debate about it.
• The US International Religious Freedom Report (2006) documents legal policy around religion and restrictions on religious freedom.

Religious Tension and Violence

Amongst Indonesian Muslims there is great debate over the degree to which Islam should influence government policy. One the one hand, conservative extremist factions argue for a broader application of shari`ah and Indonesia's conversion into a fully Muslim state; on the other hand progressive and liberal factions emphasize the religious diversity protected by Pancasila, and promote pluralism and interfaith dialogue.

In June 2005 Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI or the Indonesian Ulama Council) issued eleven fatwas (religious edicts), including one against religious pluralism. Also outlawed were interfaith prayers, interfaith marriages, secularism, liberal Islam, and the Ahmadiyya sect. The fatwas provoked great criticism from Indonesian and international leaders, as well as support in some areas of the country.

• Dr. Diana Eck, director of the Pluralism Project, visited Indonesia following the release of the fatwas and spoke at an interfaith event. Her report can be downloaded as a pdf.

Indonesia has also been the site of violence between religious communities in recent years. In particular, attacks occurred between Muslims and Christians in areas such as Sulawesi and the Moluccas, where the Christian population is higher. In 2006, the government executed three Christian ministers for inciting religious violence during the 1999-2000 riots between Muslims and Christians in Sulawesi, in which more than 1,000 people are believed to have been killed. Many protested the execution of the three Christians and criticized the government for not punishing Muslim instigators in the same fashion. Although there has been sporadic violence between Muslims and Christians since 2000, there has been nothing on the same scale as the 1999-2000 riots. There have also been some terrorist attacks carried out by Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), an extremist Muslim terror group, including the suicide attack on the Australian Embassy in September, 2004, which killed ten people.

• "Jihadism in Indonesia: Poso on the Edge" is a report by the International Crisis Group gives a summary and history of religiously motivated violence in Poso, Central Sulawesi, with special attention to increasing police activity and the potential for more violent conflict ahead. The full report in pdf format can be downloaded from the ICG site.
• Again, more information can also be found in the US International Religious Freedom Report (2006)

Interfaith Activity

In recent years there has been an increase in organizations dedicated to interfaith and pluralistic concerns. These organizations are responsible for a variety of interfaith forums, dialogues, and events, and promote pluralism and cooperation among Indonesia’s different religions. In addition, several Indonesian universities offer classes in comparative religion. There are also organizations dedicated to supporting religious minorities and safeguarding their religious freedoms.

• "Religious Pluralism in Indonesia" is a full report written by Pluralism Project Research Associate Agus Hadi Nahrowi which gives special attention to individuals and organizations involved in interfaith work.
• The Oslo Coalition for Peace and Freedom gives this delegation report after completing an extensive research project in Indonesia, which included a trip to Indonesia (July 29-Aug. 11. 2002) and interviews with many religious organizations. They focused on Christian and Muslim organizations, interfaith work, and women's issues.

Recently the Indonesian government, through the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Religion, has participated in international conferences dedicated to interfaith dialogue and religious pluralism. Dr. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, president of Indonesia, spoke at the openings of two such conferences. Conference leaders pledged to promote understanding and harmony between religious communities. The ASEM (Asia Europe Meeting) Interfaith Dialogue in Bali released a declaration in which they reaffirmed, “the importance of all peoples to hold, develop and preserve their faiths and religions within safeguarded religious freedom in a national and international atmosphere of peace, of tolerance as well as of mutual understanding and respect.”

ASEM (Asia Europe Meeting) Interfaith Dialogue (July 2005)
An interfaith dialogue in Bali sponsored by Indonesia and the United Kingdom in cooperation with other members of ASEM. Link includes the press report about the conference, the keynote address and other talks.

Australia-Indonesia Interfaith Conference (December 2004)
A two day interfaith conference sponsored by both the government of Australia and the government of Indonesia, as well as Muhammadiyah, one of the largest Islamic organizations in Indonesia. Both the press release and the conference report are available.

Interfaith Centers/Organizations

The following are organizations doing work on interfaith relations and pluralism in Indonesia:

Indonesian Conference on Religion and Peace or Konferensi Indonesia Untuk Agama dan Perdamaian (ICRP)
ICRP is a non-profit organization promoting pluralism and tolerance; its main activities focus on interfaith dialogue with field coordinators who specialize in areas such as networking, advocacy, education and research. [site in Indonesian]

Indonesian Peacebuilding Directory
The Indonesian Peacebuilding Directory is, "a guide to organizations that work to promote social change and create the conditions and relationships required for peace and justice in Indonesia." This site gives profiles of various interfaith and religious minority organizations, including those that do not have individual websites.

Institute of Human Assistance of Interfaith Community or Lembaga Bantuan Kemanusiaan Umat Beragama (LBK-UB)
LBK-UB was founded by leaders of five religions (Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Buddhism, and Hinduism), this institute promotes interfaith dialogue, democracy, educational programs, community development, and local assistance to communities.
A profile from Indonesia Peacebuilding Directory can be found here.

Institute for Inter-faith Dialogue in Indonesia (Interfidei)
The mission of Interfidei is threefold: "to encourage and develop a pluralistic religious thinking through dialogue, to stimulate a dynamic network of dialogue and interreligious cooperation and to encourage religious transformation as a solution to humanitarian issues faced by the society."
A profile from the Pluralism Project can be found here.

International Center for Islam and Pluralism
"ICIP's main mission is to disseminate the ideas of Indonesia's moderate and progressive Muslims to audiences in both Indonesia and around the world." Their vision is, "The making of a harmonious relationship among various cultural and religious groups, transgressing all civilisations, based on principles of pluralism and multiculturalism."
A profile from the Pluralism Project can be found here.

Liberal Islam Network or Jaringen Islam Liberal (JIL)
JIL is an organization promoting progressive Islam and the liberal interpretation of Islam, with focuses on gender equality and interfaith dialogue. They describe themselves as, "a community which is studying and bringing forth a discourse on Islamic vision that is tolerant, open and supportive for the strengthening of Indonesian democratization."
A profile from the Pluralism Project can be found here.

Society for Interreligious Dialogue or Masyakarat Dialog Antar Agama (MADIA)
MADIA (Society for Inter-Religious Dialogue) is the second oldest Indonesian organization involved in inter-religious dialogue. Established in 1996 in Jakarta, MADIA started several multilateral and bilateral (Muslim-Christian) dialogue projects. These projects are aimed at Indonesian religious leaders and youth. MADIA operates on an issue basis. Started in 2002, their most recent project is concentrated on the cultural and political question concerning the implementation of the shari`ah law, with an emphasis on its gender dimensions.
A profile from the Pluralism Project can be found here.

The Wahid Institute
"The WAHID Institute seeks to expand the vision and intellectual principles of H.E. Abdurrahman Wahid or Gus Dur for the development of moderate Islamic thought to promote democratic reform, religious pluralism, multiculturalism and tolerance amongst Muslims both in Indonesia and around the world."
A profile from the Pluralism Project can be found here.

Jogjakarta Interfaith Forum or Forum Persaudaraan Ummat Beriman Jogjakarta (FPUB)
FPUB is an organization of leaders from different religions and faiths, including those from Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism, Hinduism and Buddhism. They promote messages of peace and pluralism through a variety of activities and venues including street banners, discussions, interfaith dialogue, and information disseminated to government offices and religious communities.
A profile from Indonesia Peacebuilding Directory can be found here.

Relevant Research Centers

These are universities and research centers that have programs in comparative religion and pluralism:

Center for Religious and Cross-Cultural Studies (CRCS)
Part of the Gadjah Mada University in Yogjakarta, CRCS has a program on comparative religious studies. They strive to, "produce Masters level graduates with not only a broad range of knowledge, but a deep understanding and commitment to the multidisciplinary study [of] global religious traditions.
A profile from the Pluralism Project can be found here.

State Islamic Institute (IAIN)
The State Islamic Institute has a program in Islamic Studies, and also in comparative religion.

Religious Minority Organizations

These are organizations that support religious minority communities:

Catholic Youth or Pemuda Katolik
Catholic Youth is an organization to support the training of Catholic youth to become community leaders and also to promote positive cooperation between religious groups.
A profile from Indonesia Peacebuilding Directory can be found here.

Commission on Interfaith Affairs - Javanese Christian Church of Dagen-Palur
Among other activities, the Commission on Interfaith Affairs of the Christian Church of Dagen Palur seeks to promote humanitarianism together with members of other religions and to undertake comparative studies for sharing religious experiences with other faiths.
A profile from Indonesia Peacebuilding Directory can be found here.

Hindu-Indonesia.com
This site seeks to provide support to the Hindu Indonesian community and includes articles and other resources. [Site in Indonesian]

Sikhindonesia
Sikhindonesia provides histories for both Indonesia and Sikhism, and a place for local Sikhs to connect with each other. Note: Although Sikhism is not an officially recognized religion in Indonesia, there are communities of Sikhs among those of Punjabi Indian descent living in North Sumatra. According to the US International Religious Freedom Report (2006), there are eight Sikh gurdwaras in North Sumatra. As Sikhs are not allowed to identify themselves on ID cards or other official documents, most of them register as "Hindu."

The Supreme Council for Confucian Religion in Indonesia or Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia (MATAKIN)
MATAKIN is an independent non-governmental organization that seeks to provide support for the Confucian religion in Indonesia.
A profile from the Indonesian Peacebuilding Directory can be found here.

World Buddhist Directory: Indonesia
The World Buddhist Directory provides a list of several Buddhist online organizations, temples and dharma schools in Indonesia.

Other Resources

Pluralism Project Resources

Religious Diversity News Coverage
Our database of International Religious Diversity News searched by country: Indonesia.

"Religious Pluralism in Indonesia" (Pluralism Project Research Report 2006)
Pluralism Project Research Associate Agus Hadi Nahrowi wrote a full report on religious diversity in Indonesia with special attention to individuals and organizations involved in interfaith work.

"Pluralism in Indonesia"
A report by Dr. Diana Eck, director of the Pluralism Project, who visited Indonesia following the release of the fatwas and spoke at an interfaith event.

Online Articles and Resources

Buddhism

Buddhism in Indonesia
Short articles about the history of Buddhism in Indonesia at Buddha.net

Christianity

• Overview of Christianity in Indonesia
  An overview of Christianity in Indonesia with special attention to the Reformed (Protestant) churches; also includes list of churches in Indonesia.
• "Christianity and Islam in Indonesia"
  An article by Stephen Suleeman as part of the Global Education and International Leadership Development initiative of the Presbyterian Church (USA).

Confucianism

Yang, Heriyanto. "The history and legal position of Confucianism in post-independence Indonesia.” Marburg Journal of Religion: Volume 10, No. 1 (August 2005).

Hinduism

Reuter, Thomas. "Great Expectations: Hindu Revival Movements in Java, Indonesia.” Hinducouncil.uk, Jul 23, 2004.

Islam

• Falaakh, Mohammad Fajrul. “Islam in Pluralist Indonesia: Challenges Ahead.” Acton Lecture 2002, Center for Independent Studies, Wellington, Australia.
• Kimura, Ehito. “Indonesia and Islam: Before and After 9/11.” Peacework Magazine (December 2001/January 2002).
• The personal site of scholar of Islam Martin van Bruinessen offers many articles about Indonesian Islam on topics such as Islam and the state, Sufism, and other religious movements.

Judaism

Champagne, Jessica, and Teuku Cut Mahmud Aziz, “The Jews of Surabaya.” Latitudes Magazine (Jan. 2003).

Bibliography

Fic, Victor M. From Majapahit and Sukuh to Megawati Sukarnoputri: Continuity and Change in Pluralism of Religion, Culture and Politics of Indonesia from the XV to the XXI Century. New Dehli: Abhinav Publications, 2003.

Hefner, Robert W. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Hefner, Robert W. Introduction to The Politics of Multiculturalism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Edited by Robert W. Hefner. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2001.