International Portrait

International Portrait: Germany (2010)

(International Initiative)

Germany is a Western European nation with a majority Christian population and a steadily increasing Muslim minority population. Germany played a prominent role in Western Christianity as the birthplace of Protestantism and as the center of the early-modern Wars of Religion and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Currently a third of the population is non-religious, complicating statewide discussions of religion in the public sphere. Due to the intense religious tensions of the past, as well as the tragedy of the Holocaust, the German state plays an active role in protecting religious liberties through high levels of regulation and financial support in the public sphere, in schools, and in the work place. In recent years, Germany has made a concerted effort to create integration policies for its growing Muslim population in order to encourage greater coexistence in German society.

Statistics and Demographics

The dominant religious groups of Germany include Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations, comprising about 61% of the population. Official numbers for religious organizations are limited to those that are registered as corporations under public law, and therefore numbers for minority groups vary slightly in each survey. Germany’s population of 82.3 million is 31% Roman Catholic, 30% Protestant, 26% of no religious affiliation, and 13% of minority Christian communities and other religious groups.[i] Despite the high level of church membership, most Christians do not actively participate in their communities, with church attendance at less than 25% nationwide.[ii] 

Geographically, Christianity is loosely divided into different regions of Germany. Roman Catholicism is located mostly in the south and west of Germany and the Protestant Evangelical Church is concentrated in the north. The dominance of Protestantism in eastern Germany was nearly wiped out by the militantly secular socialist regime of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) or East Germany from 1949 to 1990, which persecuted church activity and encouraged secular ideology. Today the majority of Germans in the former GDR do not identify with any religion, with reports of only 5 to 10% membership in religious organizations.[iii] The religious regionalism of Catholics and Protestants in Germany is an effect of the cuius regio eius religio (“whose domain, his religion”) principle of the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, a treaty that ended a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. As part of this principle, families who were not of the same faith as their sovereign were permitted to leave the territory, resulting in more religiously homogenized regions in Germany that still exist today. 

Muslims are the fastest growing religious community and the largest minority religion in Germany, currently numbering 4.3 million, mostly from large-scale labor migrations in the mid 20th century.[iv] Immigrant Muslims and their children often have difficulty obtaining citizenship, so it is not easy to determine accurate numbers. While mainline Christian churches are in decline, the New Apostolic Church and Jehovah’s Witnesses are on the rise but are looked upon suspiciously by the general population. Jewish groups have been growing steadily since World War II, with especially large groups of Jews immigrating to Germany from former Soviet republics. Numbers have stabilized at more than 200,000, with half officially registered with a Jewish group. Most minority religious communities are concentrated in the urban areas of Western Germany and in Berlin. 

Religious History of Germany

Christianity in Germany

The German territories have been majority Christian since the 3rd century and 60% of the German population today belongs to a Christian denomination. Germany played a significant role in the history of Christianity, as the birthplace for the Protestant Reformation and for subsequent European controversies and wars stemming from the bifurcation of Christendom and the creation of the secular nation-state. Currently the Christian majority is split evenly between Catholics and Protestants, each at about 30 million, yet both suffer from declining membership and a diminishing role in public life.

In the 3rd century Germanic and Celtic Pagans of what is now Western Germany were evangelized after their incorporation into the Christian Roman Empire. From the 8th to the 13th century missionaries from the British Isles came to Germany, including St. Boniface, now the patron saint of Germany. Boniface encouraged the growth of monasteries and established dioceses across Germanic lands, the boundaries of which partly remain today.

The German monarchy remained connected to the Catholic Church, solidified in 800 by the imperial coronation of the Frankish King Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. This act initiated what became the Holy Roman Empire. For the remainder of the medieval period, the Catholic Church and the Emperor wrestled over authority. This tension was resolved in part by the Concordat of Worms, which separated spiritual and temporal power but allowed the Church to retain control over the Holy Roman Empire.

By the end of the Middle Ages, Catholics were troubled and some highly critical of what they saw as false doctrines and corruption in the hierarchy of the Church. In 1517 Martin Luther, a prominent German Catholic theologian, nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg, to publicize his grievances. Luther’s dissent was rapidly disseminated and inspired public discontent. Cries for reform quickly solidified into what is now referred to as the Protestant Reformation, with parallel and interconnected movements throughout Western Europe.

Although Luther wished to bring reform to the Catholic Church and avoid schism, the Church rejected Luther’s pronouncements as heresy and large regions of Germany and the surrounding areas converted to Protestantism. What was especially appealing to the ruling class was Luther’s Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms, which argued for the separation of church and state power.

The sweeping religious change and shifting alliances of the Protestant Reformation in Germany resulted in conflict and war that would last for over a century after the Reformation. The first major conflict occurred in 1546-1555 between the Empire and a coalition of Protestant princes united under the title of the Schmalkaldic League, which ended in The Peace of Augsburg. This treaty recognized the Lutheran faith and codified Luther’s cuius regio, eius religio (“he who rules, his religion”), which allowed princes to determine the religion of their territory. The distinctive religious territories of Catholics and Protestants in Germany were, for the most part, formed at this time. 

Despite this attempt at peace, the Holy Roman Empire remained deeply divided and conflicts erupted frequently. The friction from the religious and political division of the Empire and the larger fight for control over Europe erupted in The Thirty Years’ War of 1618-1648. The conflict involved nearly all of Europe, but the center of conflict was in the lands of the Holy Roman Empire. The Empire was destroyed, with major damage to its properties and at least a third of its population dead. The War was brought to a close by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which reaffirmed cuius regio, eius religio and ensured freedom of religious practice, effectively ending the European Wars of Religion.

French control over German territories during the Napoleonic Wars resulted in further secularization of the state, due to the annexation of large Church territories to secular rulers. Nonetheless, Protestant churches retained their function as state churches, alongside the Catholic dioceses, which resulted in the special corporate status still given to major religious groups in Germany today.

The Northern German Confederation united German territories in 1870, under Prussian control. Protestantism was associated with state nationalism, while Catholicism, constituting about a third of the population, was seen as a threat to the state. Prussian Chancellor Otto van Bismarck aimed to subordinate the Catholic Church through a series of campaigns and discriminatory laws from 1871 to 1877, referred to as Kulturkamph (“culture struggle”). The state severed its tie to Protestantism in 1874, but many anti-Catholic laws continued well into the 20th century.

The Weimar Constitution of 1919 established the separation of church and state. Conservative Protestant politicians ensured that former state churches would still be granted special status as corporations under public law. When the Nazi regime rose to power in the 1930s, certain Protestant groups supported the party and, while initially opposed to Nazi ethics, the Vatican issued a Concordat with the German Government in 1933. The Pope revoked his support in 1937 with a letter condemning Nazi ideology, especially its occupation of Church properties, secularization programs, and anti-Semitism. A minority opposition group formed in the Protestant Church, known as the Confessing Church, which criticized the Nazi cooptation of its institutions and leadership.

After 1945, Germany was divided into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). West Germany adopted the rights for religious freedom outlined in the Weimar Constitution for its own law and the Catholic and Protestant Churches helped to establish the new state’s legitimacy. In contrast, East Germany adopted a secular constitution and enforced a militaristic atheism in society. The Democratic Republic aimed to eradicate organized religion in favor of the communist state, and targeted the dominant Protestant Church. By the time the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and Germany was reunited, the number of practicing Christians in East Germany had decreased from nearly 98% to less than 31%.[v]

Today, the majority of the population is Christian, at about 61% of the population.[vi] The two major Christian Churches are The Catholic Church in Germany and The Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD), a federation of mainline Protestant Churches formed in 1948. Both religious bodies are recognized as public corporations and receive most of their funds from a membership tithe enforced through the government; because of this tax the Catholic Church in Germany is the wealthiest in Europe.[vii] Since the 1960s both Churches have suffered a decline in membership, although Protestants who were historically concentrated in Eastern and Northern Germany suffered the greatest loses during the time of the German Democratic Republic.  Though there has been a large jump in volunteer work by lay members, it is estimated that a third of Protestants will leave the Church by 2030.[viii] Simultaneously there has been a steep drop in clergy. Although the decline in membership for both Churches continues in large numbers, the public service institutions and charities run by the Churches are key institutions in Germany society.   

  • Catholic Encyclopedia article on the history of Christianity in Germany from 1556 to the modern day. 
  • The Barmen Declaration, written by the Confession Church, a schism of Protestant Churches that would not comply with the Nazi state’s co-opting of Protestantism. The statement condemns a state Church and is explicitly anti-Nazi.  
  • A concise history of Christianity in Germany can be found on country-data.com. 
  • A clear outline of the history of Christianity in Germany from Georgetown’s Berkeley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs.
  • German Protestant Kirchentag (Church Day): “For five days around 100,000 Protestant lay Christians from all over Germany will be gathering at the German Protestant Kirchentag in order to discuss anew their role as Christians in encounters with representatives from the world of politics, the economy, culture, from the official Church, and with artists and intellectuals.”
  • Ecumenical Church Day: Following the first Ecumenical Church Day in 2003, “Christians of different denominations [meet] to jointly profess their faith and, through encounters and discussions, define their responsibility for the future of the Church and the world.”
  • For a Future Founded on Solidarity and Justice, A Joint Statement on the Social and Economic Situation by Churches in Germany. In 1997, “the two main Churches in Germany published a joint statement on the social and economic situation. In this statement, they rejected the liberal market tendencies in Germany and called for the Federal Government of the time to initiate far-reaching reforms.”
  • “Pope Benedict XVI Meets with Muslim Leaders in Cologne,” an article from the BBC News, describing the Pope’s efforts to build coalitions to fight terrorism.

Orthodox and Eastern Christianity in Germany

Orthodox Christians make up a small percentage of the population, somewhere between 1-2 million, and have only reached substantial numbers in the 20th century. Orthodox Christians in Germany are composed of European groups that emigrated from their home country to avoid conflict and war. In the first half of the 20th century, Eastern Christians migrated to Germany because of the Russian Revolution and suffering in World War II.  In the 1960s Greeks and Serbians were recruited for temporary work projects that resulted in permanent settlement in Germany. In the last few decades, Orthodox Christians have also arrived from former Soviet bloc nations, such as Romania and Bulgaria, and a greater number of Serbians had arrived due to the wars in former Yugoslavia. Today about 1.2 million Orthodox Christians are members of a church in the Commission of the Orthodox Church in Germany (KOKID), a central organizing and representative organization for Eastern Christianity in Germany.

Judaism in Germany

Jews have lived in Germany for over 1,600 years. This long history is marked by great cultural flourishing and theological advancements as well as constant persecution and the tragedy of the Holocaust. Ashkenazi Jews, or Jews descendent from medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland, make up the majority of Jewish people in Germany and across the world today. Currently there are over 200,000 Jews in Germany, composed mainly of immigrants from post-Soviet bloc nations.[ix]

The Jewish presence in Germany dates back to the 4th century CE when a few small communities lived along the Rhine. In the 8th century Jewish merchants began migrating in large numbers to Western Europe from Mesopotamia, enticed by trade opportunities in the Holy Roman Empire.  Jewish merchants took up money lending and were quickly recognized for their command of global trade networks.

By the 10th century, German Jews had developed a strong intellectual and cultural life. At this time, a great yeshiva, or seminary, was established in Mainz by the Rabbi Gershom ben Judah. Mainz quickly gained worldwide prominence as a center of Jewish theological activity, as teachers and rabbis came from across the world to study and debate.

The Golden Age for European Jews ended with The Crusades. In 1095 Pope Urban II united Europe under the banner of Christianity. Jews as a religious “other” became the first victims of the crusaders’ religious fervor and entire communities were slain. The following Crusades did not prove as devastating, but Jewish life in Germany was forever changed. Jews became a scapegoat and were subject to repeated attacks and banishment.

Despite these oppressive conditions, Jews remained in Germany and spread from the towns on the Rhine to the east and the north. By the mid 14th century Germany had the largest Jewish community in Europe. Regions or cities that agreed to receive Jewish communities would draft a charter, which usually set a high tax in exchange for protection and the establishment of a separate Jewish administration and judicial system.

Because of these volatile and hostile surroundings in medieval and early modern Europe, Jews formed closed ghettoes, or quarters, in German cities. Rabbis were the main connection to the surrounding Christian world. This isolation strengthened Jewish religiosity and community, and gave rise to the Yiddish language, when German was mixed with elements of Hebrew. Religious literature was then published in Yiddish, encouraging education in the faith.

Jewish integration into German public and civic life began in the 18th century, when the Enlightenment ideals of civil liberties and equality coupled with state nationalism inspired a movement towards universal citizenship. In 1870 separate states formed the Northern German Confederation and Jews received full citizenship. In tandem, Jews’ independent governance was revoked, encouraging integration.

During this period German Jewish communities experienced their own Enlightenment, called the Haskalah. Civic enfranchisement and the European Enlightenment reawakened Jewish consciousness and inspired a new interest in philosophy and science. Moses Mendelssohn encouraged the Haskalah by translating the Torah into German, leading to widespread Jewish literacy in German. A large portion of Jews quickly took positions outside of the Jewish quarter, breaking the strict separation of Jewish life from society. 

This new intellectual culture and open, cosmopolitan lifestyle caused many Jews to seek reforms in Jewish practice to bring it in line with modern life. From this sentiment was born the Jewish Reform movement, which largely abandoned traditional observances, and the Conservative movement, which preserved the core of ritual observance with a more flexible interpretation of Jewish law. These two movements were countered by the Neo-Orthodox school, which coupled strict traditionalism with worldly pursuits.

With the benefits of citizenship and a worldly education, German Jews became successful as a mostly urban, professional class, despite continued discrimination and sometimes violence. A high percentage of Jews fought in World War I and served in high-ranking positions in the Weimar Republic. Hugo Preuss, a German Jew, was the author of the Republic’s new constitution.

After World War I Germany could not fully recover from the devastation and debts it incurred from defeat. The National Socialist (Nazi) Party won over public sentiment and political control with their national recovery plan and by 1933 established a centralized totalitarian state. Anti-Semitism became an increasingly prominent aspect of Nazi policy, as part of the larger goal of a “racially pure” Aryan nation.

In 1933 Jewish businesses were boycotted to scapegoat Jews as the cause of the nation’s economic woes and in 1935 the Nuremberg Racial Purity Laws were enacted so that Jews were stripped of their German citizenship and human rights. On November 10, 1938 the Nazi regime lead a riotous destruction of Jewish businesses and synagogues, remembered today as Kristallnaht or the Night of Broken Glass. Given this increasingly violent environment, as many as half of Germany’s 500,000 Jews fled to surrounding countries and the United States to avoid persecution before the central years of the Holocaust.

In March of 1941 Nazi Germany officially announced the “Final Solution” to eliminate the entirety of European Jewry, although such efforts were already underway for years. Jews were given yellow stars for identification, forced into segregated ghettos, and eventually most were moved into concentration camps. It is estimated that between 160,000 and 180,000 German Jews were killed amongst the six million European Jews and other socially prosecuted groups targeted in the Holocaust.[x]

The population of Jews left in Germany at the end of World War II was 20,000, less than five percent of prewar numbers, with most in West Germany.[xi] Around 200,000 displaced Jews came to Germany shortly after the war only to move soon after to refugee camps in Palestine.[xii] Most German Jews who had fled during the war did not return, leaving Germany’s Jewish population stagnant and insular over the next several decades.

With the fall of communism, Germany received a large influx of Jews from the former Soviet Union due to its generous refugee policy and reparations for Jewish persons. Germany saw nearly half of these Jewish immigrants disappear after receiving government aid. Long-time Jewish residents of Germany express apprehension about being outnumbered by immigrant communities, despite the fact that the presence of those who remained has revitalized the community and catalyzed a Jewish cultural renaissance.

Germany currently has the third largest Jewish population in Europe at 200,000, after France and Great Britain, and is currently the fastest growing population.[xiii] About half of all Jews are officially registered with a congregation. The Central Council of Jews, established in 1950, is the main voice for Jews in politics and public life, but mainly represents Orthodox Judaism. In 2003 the organization was government approved for corporate status and now dispenses the government aid given to Jewish communities in reparation for the Holocaust. There is currently a shortage of full time Rabbis for Jewish congregations, but seminary education has been revived since the mid 1990s.

Religious diversity within Jewish communities has increased since 1990 because many immigrant Jews identify with Liberal or Reform Judaism. The Union of Progressive Jews, the umbrella organization of Reform Judaism in Germany, has 22 member communities and maintains its own rabbinical seminary. They have negotiated with The Central Council of Jews to obtain a due portion of federal aid for Jewish organizations.

On the whole, Jewish groups have received support from their Christian neighbors in their slow growth across Germany. In the city of Cologne, the Jewish community was given access to low rent land by a Protestant church in order to build a synagogue. And on November 9, 2006, the 68th anniversary of Kristallnacht, Munich’s Ohel Jakob Synagogue was rededicated after its destruction by Hitler’s order in 1938.

  • Talmud.de is a portal to extensive information on Jewish life in Germany, including a list of Jewish communities and their locations.
  • A series of article on contemporary Jewish life in Germany from the Goethe Institute in Germany.
  • The history of Jewish life in Berlin with extensive photography and lists of important sites in the city from the Society for the Promotion of Jewish Culture.
  • “Orthodox Jewish Community Takes Hold In Berlin” by Kristen Grieshaber at AP. Discusses the growth of the Jewish community and a renaissance of Jewish culture in Germany spurred by large numbers of immigrants from former Soviet bloc nations. The Economist article “Latkes and Vodka” also describes this growth.
  • “For the First Time since WWII, German Rabbis Ordained”, from BBC News. In 2006 the first Rabbis were ordained in Germany since the destruction of Jewish seminaries during Nazi rule in Germany.

Islam in Germany

Islamic civilization has had a long engagement with the territories now known as Germany. The pre-modern Islamic conquests into Europe did not reach Germany as in the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean coasts. Yet cultural and diplomatic exchange between Germanic territory and Islamic powers began during the early Islamic empires and has extended into the modern period between Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Germany now has the second largest Muslim population in Western Europe, after France.

The initial connection between Germanic territories and the Muslim Middle East is dated to the early 9th century. In 797 or 801 the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid and the Western European Emperor Charlemagne established diplomatic relations and guaranteed religious freedom to each other’s respective religious communities. Despite this initial contact, over the next millennium, proto-German territories did not have direct engagement with the Muslim world. However, of note is Martin Luther’s request in the 16th century for a Latin translation of the Qur’an, in order to submit it to critique.

It was not until the 18th century when amiable relations arose again between Germanic territories and an Islamic power. In 1701 Sultan Mustafa II of the Ottoman Empire congratulated King Frederick I of the Prussian Empire on his coronation, resulting in open diplomatic and economic relations. King Frederick’s successors kept their connection to the Ottoman Sultanate, as a counterweight to the Habsburg monarchy in Austria, and in 1763 the first Ottoman envoy arrived in Berlin. Friendly diplomatic relations continued into the 19th century when the German Kaiser William II made diplomatic visits to Jerusalem, Damascus, and Istanbul in 1888-1889. The connection between these two states would hold strong even in the face of war, when, in 1914 Germany and the Ottoman Empire formed an alliance in World War I.

Today, Germany has the largest Muslim population in Western Europe after France, at approximately 3.1 to 3.5 million or about 4% of the general population, a result of both labor migration and refugee resettlement over the course of the 20th century. About 90% of Muslims in Germany are Sunni, with small populations of Shiites, Ahmadis, and Alevis. Over 70% of German Muslims are of Turkish origin, followed by those of Bosnian and Herzegovinian origin (about 167,000), then populations of less than 100,000 from Iran, Morocco, and Afghanistan, and an estimated 60,000 Palestinian refugees. Although their numbers are small, Germany has the largest European populations of both Afghanis and Kurds, though many Afghanis are Hindu or Sikh.[xiv]

The growth of the Muslim population in Germany is due primarily to waves of migration that have occurred since the early 1960s, as only a few hundred Muslims remained in Germany after the Nazi regime had pressured Muslims to flee. The first wave of Muslim migration to Western Germany came in response to a guest worker program from 1961 to 1973, which attracted mostly Turkish and some North African and Yugoslavian migrants to fill Western Germany’s labor shortages. The guest worker program attracted laborers in the hundreds of thousands, who eventually brought their families to settle.

Subsequent waves of migration came as a result of political turmoil and religious persecution in the migrants’ home countries. The first groups of Muslim asylum seekers came from Turkey (including Kurds, Yezidis, and Assyrians), followed by Iranian Muslims fleeing from the 1979 revolution. Later came Afghani, Bosnian and Kosovar, Palestinian, and other Kurdish refugees seeking asylum.

There are an estimated 2,600 Muslim places of worship in Germany. Mosques are usually created in converted spaces, with over 150 bearing the Islamic architectural elements of a dome and minaret, and with over 100 more in various stages of planning or under construction.[xv] Currently there are around six prominent national Muslim organizations representing different ethnic groups and/or religious perspectives.[xvi] In 2006, the German government created The German Islamic Conference, a working group that brings together high-level government officials with Muslim representatives to create better government policy to assist with integration and equality in German society.

Like other migrant populations coming from working and middle class backgrounds, Muslims are more likely to live in segregated urban neighborhoods. Discrimination in the workplace, in housing, and in schools has created obstacles for Muslims to succeed in German society and to participate in political life. Furthermore, prejudice and misunderstanding about Islam has caused controversy over the building of mosques, religious education for Muslims in public schools, and the wearing of hijab by government workers, especially teachers. However, the German government is working intently with Muslim organizations to better serve and support these communities.

  • The most extensive survey of Islam in Germany has been prepared by the Euro-Islam website.
  • A comprehensive website prepared by Dr. Martin Riexinger on Islam in Germany that provides reports and articles, official documents, educational and mosque organizations by location, and formation on interfaith work by Muslims.
  • In 2002 the Central Council for Muslims in Germany, an umbrella organization of 19 Muslim organizations, released the Islamic Charter outlining their vision of Islam’s relationship to the German State and the status of Muslims in Germany.
  • Mosque Open Day: “Every year on October 3rd up to 1000 mosques all over Germany open their gates to mark ‘Mosque Open Day.’ With mosque tours, podium discussions, exhibitions, bookstalls and traditional events, the mosque communities seek to make contact with their fellow citizens.”
  • “New Umbrella Organization to Represent Muslims in Germany,” from The Muslim News.  In 2007 the Muslim Coordination Council (KRM) was formed.

Buddhism in Germany

Buddhism is a minority religious tradition in Germany but has had a considerable influence on modern German philosophy. Over the course of the 19th century, European Indologists and Sinologists began to develop scholarly literature on Buddhism based on missionary, military, and colonial accounts, as well as their own fieldwork in Asia. Herman Oldenberg, an Indologist, had a significant role in popularizing Buddhism through his 1881 study, "Buddha: His life, his teachings, his community."  Major German philosophers and writers of the time, such as Fredrich Hegel; Hermann Hesse, author of Siddhartha (1922); and Friedrich Nietzsche took considerable interest in Buddhism, especially because of the correlations they drew to the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer.

In 1903 the first German Buddhist organization was founded in Leipzig by the Indologist Karl Seidenstucker, called The Buddhist Mission in Germany. Around this time, a German named Anton Gueth became the first European Buddhist monk, receiving Theravada ordination in Burma, and gaining considerable fame as a translator of religious texts under his Buddhist name Nyanatiloka. He would later establish a monastery in Sri Lanka, named Island Hermitage, which attracted many Western Buddhists interested in monastic life. In 1924 Paul Dahlke established the first European Buddhist monastery in Berlin called The Buddhist House, which became the center of Buddhist life in Germany and is now preserved as a National Heritage site.

In these early decades, Theravada Buddhism was the dominant form of Buddhism. After World War II, Zen, Mahayana, and Vajrayana (Tibetan) Buddhism began to take seed in Germany along with a growing interest in meditation-practice over intellectual study of texts. By the mid-twentieth century, the growth of Buddhist organizations led to the creation of two national groups: The German Dharmaduta Society (1952), a Theravada organization, and The German Buddhist Union (GBU) (1955). In the 1960s, Several Japanese Zen philosophers came to Germany to study under Martin Heidegger, interested in the connection between his interpretation of nothingness and the Buddhist teaching of emptiness, continuing the exchange between German philosophy and Buddhism.

Estimates place the number of Buddhist practitioners today at around 245,000, split evenly between Asian immigrants and those of Germanic origin. Most Buddhists of Asian origin are Vietnamese refugees, with smaller numbers from Taiwan, Cambodia, Korea, and Japan.[xvii] However Buddhism does not necessarily promote congregational membership so it is difficult to determine an accurate figure. The German Buddhist Union (GBU) currently has 57 member-groups, 2,300 individual members, and over 600 Buddhist groups registered in its database, a significant increase from 15 groups in 1977.[xviii] The GBU has also noticed an increase in cross-congregational activity, national conferences, and Buddhist studies in academic and non-academic settings.

Hinduism in Germany

According to government statistics there are close to 100,000 Hindus in Germany.[xix] Hinduism has taken root in Germany mostly as the result of immigration waves from India, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka in the 20th century. The earliest wave dates from the 1950s to the 1970s when the majority of the migrants were upper middle class men from India who came to Germany in order to pursue medical degrees or professional work in academia, sciences, or commerce. Many became well established and financially successful, and some even adopted Germany nationality. Indian Hindus, which now number about 40,000 quickly integrated into German society.

Over the 1970s and 1980s, thousands of Germans converted and/or joined neo-Hindu groups such as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKON), Transcendental Meditation (TM), and Sahja Yoga, sparking national debates amongst those who considered Germany a Judeo-Christian society. These western Hindus formed local groups and established city centers, but their numbers dropped significantly in the 1990s to less than 10,000 as the trend faded.

During the 1980s Hindu refugees fled to Germany to escape the Soviet-Afghan war in Afghanistan and the Sinhalese-Tamil civil war in Sri Lanka. Afghani Hindus were a prosperous minority group in Afghanistan and about 5,000 moved to Germany, together in kinship groups, to settle. They have since established several cultural societies and large, lavishly decorated temples in the cities of Hamburg, Frankfurt, and Cologne. Sri Lankan Hindus are the largest and most visible ethnic Hindu community in Germany at about 45,000. Like the Afghanis, Sri Lankan Hindus have founded several cultural societies, South Asian shops, and temples, numbering about 25 in 2005.

The most well-known and visible Hindu temple in Europe is the Sri Lankan Sri Kamadchi Ampal Temple in Hamm, Westphalia. The Tamil temple is the second largest in Europe, built in a traditional Sri Lankan style by a local German architect. The temple’s head priest Sri Paskaran originally set up a worship place in his apartment in 1989 when he arrived in Germany as a Sri Lankan refugee, and moved the growing congregation to a city-approved temporary space in 1997. The temple’s construction was completed in 2002, and currently 50,000 worshippers and tourists visit annually, of which 25,000 come from across Europe to attend the annual two-week temple festival.[xx]

It is estimated that there are close to 100,000 Hindus in Germany today, including 45,000 Sri Lankan, 40,000 Indian, 10,000 of Germanic-origin, and 5,000 Afghani adherents.[xxi]

The Baha’i Faith in Germany

The history of the Baha’i faith in Germany is credited to two Germans who traveled to America and returned to Germany in the beginning of the 20th century. After the conversion of a sufficient number of individuals, the first Baha’i Local Spiritual Assembly was established in 1908. In 1913 ‘Abdu’l-Baha visited Germany for eight days, and in 1916 a plaque was raised in honor of his visit in Bad Mergentheim. After ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s visit, more assembles appeared across Germany, publications began, and the first Baha’i National Spiritual Assembly was held in 1923.

During the Nazi regime, the Baha’i Faith was disbanded by a 1937 order and the plaque to ‘Abdu’l-Baha taken down. Fortunately the community survived World War II and re-instated the National Spiritual Assembly in 1946. In 1952 the community began the construction of The Baha’i House of Worship in Langenhain, near Frankfurt. It is now one of seven official Baha’i Houses of Worship in the world and the only one in Europe. Today, there are an estimated 5,000 to 6,000 Baha’is in Germany and 106 Local Spiritual Assemblies in 2006, a large increase from 14 in 1950.[xxii]

  • In 2005 German Baha’is celebrated 100 years of the Baha’i community in Germany; a report about the event from the Baha’i World News Service.
  • “German Town Re-Erects Monument”: a Baha’i World News Service article on the restoration of a Baha’i memorial that was taken down during Nazi rule. 

Sikhism in Germany

The estimated population of Sikhs in Germany varies widely, from 5,000[xxiii] to 50,000.[xxiv] Most German Sikhs are Afghani refugees who fled from Afghanistan due to the Soviet-Afghan war and later out of fear of prosecution by the Taliban regime. Currently there are at least 19 Gurdwaras, with significant Sikh populations in Frankfurt, Cologne, and Stuttgart.[xxv]

Further Historical Resources

Constitution and Religious Freedom

The German Republic is officially neutral in religious matters. Article Four of the German Constitution, also known as the Basic Law, guarantees freedom of faith, conscience, and creed; religious practice; and conscientious objection to military service. Article Three prohibits discrimination on the basis of creed and Article Seven guarantees religious education in public schools for officially recognized communities. Article Thirty-Three guarantees equal access to public services and eligibility for public office regardless of adherence or non-adherence to a particular religion or creed.

While state law dictates a separation of state and religion, there is a mutual recognition and cooperation in certain areas of education and social services. Under Germany’s federal structure, individual states determine law germane to religious freedoms, although the national government may intervene in issues of constitutional legality. A special relationship exists between the government and religious organizations that are approved as public law corporations. In practice, religious freedom is generally upheld and hate crimes are strongly opposed, but many minority religions face discrimination and in some cases are denied freedom of practice.

Government Policy and Practice

Registration with the state is not required of religious organizations but is necessary in order to receive tax-exempt status as a nonprofit association. Without state recognition, groups are still afforded the full right to practice. Religious communities can also apply for higher status as a corporation under public law, from which they receive a set of privileges including the right to: elect chaplains for public institutions; teach theology courses to students of their faith in public schools; and levy a tithe, around 7 to 9% of the income tax, on its members. The Roman Catholic Church and the Evangelical Church of Germany each receive around  18.5 billion in subsidies, including the tithe and   3.5 for religious education as well as an additional   45 billion to run social services.[xxvi]

To receive this status, religious organizations must meet a list of requirements including size, durability, and, most importantly, compatibility with the constitution, including respect for fundamental human rights. Currently about 180 religious groups have corporate status, and most who apply are approved.[xxvii] However, Jehovah’s Witnesses have been repeatedly denied corporate status, and have only won this right in the state of Bavaria. Despite their large numbers, Muslims have had difficulty receiving approval due to their lack of an official, centralized organization. 

Government subsidies are given to religious organizations for cultural-historical reasons or to support the institutions of a religious group that serve the public good as a public corporation. The Jewish community is the recipient of permanent financial support from the government as a response to the devastation of the Holocaust to its community. An extension of this commitment is the 2003 State Agreement on Cooperation between the federal government and the Central Council of Jews, which guarantees 3.1 million ($4.65 million) yearly to maintain and restore Jewish heritage, support Jewish integration, and fund the reconstruction and new growth of synagogues. Christian and Jewish organizations that lost houses of worship in the 1803 Act of State Appropriation also receive subsidies to reconstruct or restore those sites. Finally religious groups with corporate status can receive subsidies for institutions that serve public welfare, such as hospitals, retirement homes, or day-care facilities.

Article Seven of The German Basic Law states that religious instruction is part of the regular curriculum of state schools. Only registered religious communities are eligible for education funding, although the German government has begun pilot religious education programs for Muslims. Each state is individually responsible for interpreting this law, resulting in a diversity of educational offerings including classes during or after school hours. The curriculum is determined by the religious community but cannot violate the values of the German constitution. Article Seven gives parents the choice to decide whether to enroll their children in religious education and also protects teachers from being forced to provide religious instruction against their will. In the 2000s religious education by the state came under controversy when some German states questioned the place of religious education in secular schools, and currently two federal states, Bremen and Berlin, have restricted religious courses in public schools.

The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (OPC) maintains the right to monitor religious groups whose beliefs or practices appear contrary to the principles of the German Constitution. As a result of this categorization, the government may publicly distribute information about a religious group that it labels a nontraditional “sect” or a “youth religion,” and in some cases will restrict or rescind their rights and activities. One religion subject to particular scrutiny by the German government is Scientology, which is under observation and is identified as a threat to the democratic order. Scientologists are banned from three major political parties and constantly suffer discrimination in the workplace and public sphere. Certain Muslim organizations are also under observation as well. Many states have outlawed the wearing of the hijab, or headscarf, by Muslim civil servants because it is believed to be an instrument of oppression to women’s rights and therefore is deemed contrary to German constitutional principles.

Contemporary Issues in Religious Freedom and Integration 

Muslim Integration

Germany’s Muslim population continues to wrestle with the challenges of integration into society despite over two generations of a significant presence in the country. Issues of citizenship and generally lower economic levels contribute to continued discrimination in employment and housing. Fear and suspicion of Muslims in society reflects larger trends in Europe, which have sometimes led to protest, legal action, and violence against visible symbols of Islam (such as the headscarf). In response, Muslims in Germany have established interfaith relationships and organize an annual “Open Mosque Day” to familiarize non-Muslims with Islam, while the government is working to create more effective integration policies for Muslims.

Background

The German government’s worker programs of the 1960s resulted in the migration of foreign laborers and their families to Germany, including significant Muslim populations. The large majority of these workers were Turkish Muslims, though many of the smaller groups of immigrants came from Muslim majority countries as well. The government did not anticipate the high retention level of immigrant workers, and offered incentives for their repatriation that were largely ignored. Despite the initial success experienced by many migrant workers, the steel and coal industries fell to foreign competition in the 1980s and subsidies to these industries were finally cut after reunification in 1989.

Neither the government nor the migrant workers planned for the permanent settlement of the latter, and therefore little government groundwork had been laid towards integration. As a result, most of these immigrants have remained marginalized and economically suppressed, and maintain insulated communities defined by ethnicity, language, and religion. Arguably, the Muslim community has become the most visible – and the most embattled – immigrant population in Germany today.

The activity of German Muslims is subject to intense debate due to their growing numbers and high visibility, in combination with contemporary issues of global terrorism by Muslim extremists, Political Islam, and the increased tensions and violence surrounding growing Muslims populations across Western Europe. German society is generally unreceptive to overt forms of religious expression, especially from non-Christian groups. 

Despite attempts from both the community and the government to improve integration, Muslims who have been in Germany for two to three generations are still labeled as foreigners due to both their ethnicity and religious identity. However the diversity in Germany is an undeniable part of its future: close to 50% of urban youth today have minority status, with immigrant parents or grandparents.[xxviii] Although the government has invested in education for underprivileged students, Muslim youth have poorer school performance and lower job acquisition rates. Explanations for this gap include issues of language mastery, teacher frustrations, discrimination, and accessibility.

While experiences of disenfranchisement and discrimination are real and regular experiences in the lives of many Muslims living in Germany, the major social controversies are centered on the ways in which Islam is becoming increasingly visible in Germany. The major ideological controversies surround mosque construction projects, the hijab, and religious education in public schools. Though many of the problems facing German Muslims stem from their immigrant background or status, as opposed to religious identity, discriminatory voices conflate both of these identity markers, blaming Islamic ethics or attitudes for immigrants’ economic and occupational difficulties and “inability” to integrate well.

Recent Mosque Construction

Like other minority religious groups, Muslims are building religious centers in order to express their permanent presence in German society as well as provide adequate space for the ever-growing numbers of worshippers. Currently there are about 2,600 prayer spaces in former factories and other converted spaces, and about 260 mosques designed using classical architecture, with 120 to 180 more in some phase of planning or construction. Many mosque projects receive government subsidies for their construction and maintenance because they include spaces and services for public use. 

Mosque construction in German cities has proceeded with resistance, propelled by a vocal minority of German citizens who, through protests and petitions, have stirred fears amongst the general public about Islamization, Turkish government influence, and Muslim political power. These groups raise concerns about the prominent display of the dome and minaret amongst the church steeples as an intrusion on Germany’s Judeo-Christian heritage and “secular” civic space.

In other instances, mosque construction has received support from surrounding neighbors and religious communities and the completed centers have served to stimulate and unify largely immigrant neighborhoods. Whether mosques are integrated into the local community depends not only on the architectural choices, but also on the surrounding demographics, support from other local religious organizations, and the level of dialogue and openness presented by the Muslim community towards its neighbors.

On the whole, German citizens are supportive of mosque construction, although the mosque remains a potent symbol in debates surrounding Muslim integration into Germany. To this day, experiences surrounding mosque construction vary greatly. In Cologne the construction of an Ahmadiyya mosque brought controversy to a working class neighborhood, but protests died quickly after the project was complete. In Duisburg, which has significant minority populations, a large Ottoman style mosque went up easily and was welcomed by the surrounding public as a boon to the local community.

The most recent mosque construction to capture media attention is the largest mosque project to date in Germany, located in the western German city of Cologne and funded by The Turkish Islamic Union for Religious Affairs (DITIB). The mosque was designed in an Ottoman style; the minarets will be the highest structures in city skyline.

Several protests have been organized to challenge the mosque, although two thirds of Cologne residents surveyed support its construction. Currently there are over two dozen mosques already present in Cologne that serve its sizable Muslim population. These misgivings aside, the city council voted to approve the construction of the mosque in August 2008. Since that time, the DITIB has been holding seminars on Islam, dialogue, and refugee issues, to create a better and more informed relationship with the public.

To help with concerns about mosque construction projects and general integration of Muslim populations into German society, mosques across German host an annual “Day of Open Mosques,” to encourage non-Muslim Germans to explore their religious center and ask questions about Islam. October 3, 2009 was the 13th annual “Day of Open Mosques,” when nearly 2,500 large capacity mosques opened their doors.

The Hijab in Public Schools

Both male and female Muslim teachers are recruited by the government to teach Islam in public schools. However, controversy arose in the early 2000s over the wearing of the hijab, or headscarf, by female teachers. Some schools claimed that a teacher wearing the headscarf around impressionable students had an overly political message or violated the constitutional values of freedom and equality for women. This debate is related to similar disputes in France over the meaning and public status of the headscarf.

In 2003 the federal government granted individual states the authority to determine the appropriateness of the headscarf in public schools. In April 2004 the southern German state of Baden-Wuerttemberg became the first state to issue a ban; currently eight of the sixteen federal states have banned the hijab in public schools as part of a larger ban on teacher’s overt expressions of religious, political, and/or ideological affiliation. In 2006 two 18 year old students wore the burqa to school and were suspended for “disturbing the peace,” extending state involvement in dress to include students as well as teachers.[xxix]

All states save Berlin still allow the display of Christian crosses on jewelry and the Jewish yarmulke, and five have exception clauses for Christian clothing, such as the nun’s habit. Interestingly, all the states that have issued the ban, except for Berlin, are located in western Germany. The Human Rights Watch report, "Discrimination in the Name of Neutrality: Headscarf Bans for Teachers and Civil Servants in Germany," finds that government officials believe the scarf violates neutrality in the classroom without any proof of this having such an effect and are therefore discriminating against Muslims.

Religious Education in Public Schools

According to Article Seven of the German Constitution, religious education is a right guaranteed to every citizen. In a cooperative model of church and state relations, the German Government funds religious instruction for each recognized religious group during normal school hours. The curriculum is developed by the religious body and approved by the state. Parents dictate which religious course their child will attend, but after age 14, the student may choose which class, if any, to attend. 

Religious instruction is part of the regular school curriculum, except in the States of Berlin and Brandenburg, as well as in schools that are explicitly secular. After reunification, most eastern states reintroduced religious instruction, but Brandenburg introduced a new “life-ethics-religion” (LER) course that provides ethical instruction and an academic presentation of the world religions. Religious groups were allowed to present their courses after school, but after much debate the judiciary settled on a cooperative model where the state will co-finance and integrate religion classes into the curriculum.

In Berlin, there has been significant controversy surrounding the state’s choice not to provide religious instruction, despite having 40% religious residents.[xxx] Originally the state allowed for religious instruction in school buildings during normal hours, but did not integrate it into the normal curriculum. Beginning in 2006, students in grades 7 to 10 were required to take a secular ethics course (Ethik). A coalition called “Pro-Reli,” challenged the Ethik curriculum that same year, claiming that students have the right to choose between Ethik and religious instruction; the courts rejected this appeal. In 2009 there was again a citywide referendum vote, but it was also rejected.

The major issue across Germany in religious education is providing instruction for the growing Muslim population. The state had difficulty recognizing an appropriate representative party to train teachers and develop religious curriculum, due to the lack of institutional authority in Islam, but also because of the great diversity of Muslim communities in Germany. The German government would like to curb private religious instruction for Muslims, which is unregulated and thought to be suspicious of promoting unconstitutional values or insularity, particularly amongst Turkish German Muslims. Across Germany, universities have established Muslim theological programs to train future Muslim leaders as imams, counselors, and teachers. Islamic studies pilot courses have been offered at schools since the early 2000s, but they only offer an objective and non-devotional presentation of Islam. Since 2008 there have been pilot religious instruction courses for Muslim students across German states, and university trained Muslim educators are currently developing a national curriculum. 

Interfaith Activity

There are several active interfaith organizations, almost exclusively amongst the Abrahamic religious traditions of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Christian support has been a boon to Muslim integration in German society, whether through community dialogues or statements in favor of new mosque constructions. Most websites are in German, with a portion offering English and French translation.

Interfaith Centers/Organizations

Christian-Islamic Encounter and Documentation Centre (CIBEDO) 
“CIBEDO is the specialist centre of the German Bishops’ Conference with the task of fostering inter-religious dialogue between Christianity and Islam as well as encouraging the coexistence of Christians and Muslims. Its home page offers information on events, literature tips and an overview of dialogue topics present in the media.”

Christian-Islamic Society   
“The Christian-Islamic Society (CIG) is a registered association dedicated to the promotion of understanding and dialogue between Christians and Muslims, Christian churches and Islamic societies. Its home page includes event tips and an extensive literature list on the topic of Christian-Islamic dialogue.”

Coordination Council of the Associations of Christian-Islamic Dialogue 
“A great variety of dialogue initiatives are represented in the Coordination Council. Its home page gives information about the individual initiatives, its events and the lobby work of the Council.”

German Coordinating Council of Societies for Christian-Jewish Cooperation (DKR) 
“DKR and its societies campaign for Judeo-Christian dialogue, stand up against anti-Semitism and right-wing extremism and foster a peaceful co-existence of peoples and religions. DKR’s home page offers tips regarding dialogue events, publications on the topic and information on the society’s history and work.”

Global Ethic Foundation 
“The programmatic basis of the Foundation’s work is the “Declaration towards a Global Ethic” endorsed by the Parliament of the World's Religions. According to a thesis of Hans Küng’s, a peaceful co-existence of the world religions will only be possible if they reflect on a common ethic that all of them can support.”

Relevant Research Centers

Centre for Buddhism Research (ZBF)
“The Centre for Buddhism Research combines the subjects and capacities of the Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich in various faculties in order to do and initiate research on Buddhism in past and present.”

Centre for Religious Studies (CRS)   
“The CRS was established in 2002 by the Westphalian Wilhelms University in Münster in co-operation with the Ministry of Schools, Science and Research. The Centre for Religious Studies is tasked with setting a framework for religious studies, primarily in the fields of Islam, Orthodox Christianity and Judaism. In particular, it develops courses to qualify teachers to give Orthodox and Islamic religious instruction at state schools.”

Centre of Research on Anti-Semitism 
“The Centre of Research on Anti-Semitism, located at the Technical University of Berlin, was founded in 1982 and is the only institution of its kind for interdisciplinary research and teaching on prejudices and its consequences such as anti-Semitism, antiziganism, xenophobia and racism.”

German National Ethics Council
“Following the Federal Government's decision of 2 May 2001, the National Ethics Council was set up on 8 June 2001 as a national forum for dialogue on ethical issues in the life sciences.”

Goethe Institut
“The Goethe-Institut is the Federal Republic of Germany’s cultural institution operational worldwide.” This section on Philosophy and Religion contains extensive studies, articles, and links on the history and contemporary issues surrounding religion in Germany. There is also a sub-section on the Challenge of the Religions in contemporary German society.

Information Platform Religion
“The Information Platform Religion is a project of the Religious Studies Media and Information Service (REMID) in Marburg and supported by the Alliance for Democracy and Tolerance and the German Federal Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. With its great variety of up-to-date articles, background texts and links it offers a broad range of information on the world religions and new religions.”

Institute for the Research of Contemporary Religious Culture (IrG)  
“Founded in 1996, the Institute for the Research of Contemporary Religious Culture (IrG) sees itself in the role of contributing towards the analysis of contemporary religious culture via interdisciplinary co-operation.”

Interdisciplinary Forum on Religion (IFR)  
“The Interdisciplinary Forum on Religion (IFR) was founded in 2004 and is a central institution of the University of Erfurt comprising some 30 professors and 65 young academics from all faculties of the university and from the Max Weber Centre.”

Philosophical Research Institutes
From the Goethe Institut, a listing of important German research institutions in the Philosophy of Religion.

Religion Plural – The Bochum Project
In operation through the Ruhr-University Bochum, the Bochum Project for religious pluralism is a platform for supporting religious diversity. It offers sociological data on the size and membership of German’s diverse religious groups and links to the self-portraits of religious communities. The project aims to increase knowledge of Germany’s diverse religious communities to contribute to greater pluralism in the nation.

Religious Studies Media and Information Service (REMID) 
“REMID, an association of professors of Religious Studies in Marburg, provides information on the topic of religion for the media, federal institutions, and the interested public.”

Study of Philosophy in Germany and Austria
“Web portal on philosophical studies in Germany and Austria.”

Religious Organizations

Christianity

The Catholic Church in Germany
The Catholic Church’s official website for its adherents in Germany, which number around one third of the country’s population.

Catholic News: Germany
Catholic News offers a wide-ranging information portal covering topical issues, discussions and news. Additionally, an interactive forum is available, as are a number of other services.

Catholic News Agency (KNA)
“Since its foundation in 1952, the KNA Catholic News Agency has been an important member of the German-speaking media community. Today, we are the largest and most productive Catholic News Agency in Europe.”

Commission of the Orthodox Church in Germany (KOKiD)
This organizing body represents all the major Orthodox traditions in Germany, but is still subordinate to the governing Church body of each respective country. This body does not represent Oriental Orthodox Churches.

Council of Christian Churches in Germany (ACK)
An ecumenical organization of churches in Germany, founded in 1948. Part of the World Council of Churches.

Evangelical Central Office for Questions about World Views (EZW)
“The Evangelical Central Office for Questions about World Views (EZW) is the central office of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) for scientific study, documentation, information and advice concerning contemporary religious and ideological trends. Its task is to monitor and assess these trends.” The website contains information about the institute's work, opinions and events.

The Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD)
“The Evangelical Church in Germany is a federation of 22 regional Lutheran, Reformed, and United Protestant church bodies in Germany.” The federation was formed in 1948 but earlier manifestations existed in the early 20th century. Each member church has independent theological and structural organization, but the member churches are united under an elected Council Chairman.

The Evangelical Theological Fakultätentag
An organization of 19 Protestant theological schools in Germany and 3 colleges. All members of the group participate in curriculum development for German Schools.

 Evangelischer Pressedienst (epd)
The Protestant press service of German, which has been in operation for over a century. “Information about church and religion, culture, education, society etc.”

German Bishops’ Conference
The German Bishops Conference represents all Roman Catholic Bishops of German dioceses. The Conference promotes mutual consultation and coordination of activity and decisions made for the Catholic Church in Germany.

The German Commission for Justice and Peace
A coordination effort between Catholic Church leaders and organizations working toward justice and peace, especially in regard to human rights issues in Germany.

The German Order of Chief Conference (DOK)
The German Order of Chief Conference is the merger of Major Superiors of Catholic orders and congregations in Germany. Their website provides extensive information on Catholic communities in Germany.

International Movement “We Are Church”
“This movement was founded in Austria in 1995 and aims to reform the Catholic Church. We are Church endeavors to strengthen the concept of community life and the extent to which believers have a say in matters. Its web page provides information on the views, projects and activities of the movement.”

The Joint Conference Church and Development (GKKE)
A joint Catholic-Protestant effort to conduct dialogues with parliament, government and social interest groups on issues of North-South policy and development cooperation.

Münster Forum for Theology and Church
This internet portal offers a multitude of current dossiers, texts and discussion contributions on the topics of religion and the church from a Christian-Catholic point of view. In addition it includes an extensive link list to other institutions and theological topics.

Secular Institute of the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church’s arm for confronting and engaging the large secular population.

Russian Orthodox Churches in Germany
An extensive list of Russian Orthodox Churches in Germany with full information including website, location, and contact information.

The Union of Evangelical Churches
Composed of 13 United and Reformed evangelical Churches in Germany, which are all part of the EKD.

Judaism

The Abraham Geiger College
A Jewish seminary located in Potsdam opened in 1999. In 2006 the seminary ordained the first three rabbis trained in Germany since the last Jewish seminary was closed by the Nazi regime in 1942.

Central Council of Jews in Germany
The central organizing body of Jews in Germany represents mostly Orthodox communities. It has been recognized by the German government as a corporation under public law and is responsible for distributing most government funds for Jewish communities.

Central Research Archive for Jewish History in Germany
The Central Research Archive is sponsored by the Central Consistory of the Jews in Germany and is sponsored by the Federal Ministry of the Interior.

HaGalil Magazine
An online magazine begun in 1995 that is published in German and focuses on the issues of Judaism, German Jews, and Israel. HaGalil is considered the most widespread magazine of its kind in German and is published out of Germany and Israel.

Jewish Communities in Germany
A list provided by talmud.de, a German portal on Judaism in Germany. At the main website there is also an interactive map of the community centers across the country.

Jewish Museum
Located in Berlin, this national museum opened in 2001. The museum’s collections range from fine arts to everyday culture, and it also offers an annual prize for understanding and tolerance.

Ohel Jakob Synagogue
The rebuilt synagogue in Munich, which was destroyed during the Nazi regime, opened March 22, 2007. This site has extensive photographs of the building.

The Orthodox Rabbinical Conference, Germany (ORD)
Founded in 2003, the ORD was founded by rabbis to coordinate efforts to maintain and support Jewish tradition and Halacha in Germany, with particular emphasis on immigrant Jewish populations.

World Union for Progressive Judaism
The Central Organization for Progressive or Reform Jewish communities, composed of mostly immigrant Jewish groups.

Islam

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in Germany
Ahmadis are one of the Muslim religious minorities in Germany, many emigrating from South Asia due to persecution. In Berlin the Ahmadis built one of the oldest mosques in Germany, which still stands today.

 The Central Council of Muslims in Germany (ZMD)
An umbrella organization of 19 Muslim organizations with approximately 700 mosque-communities.

Coordination Council of Muslims (KRM)
Established in 2007 by the three major Muslim organizations (ZMD, VIKZ, DTB) and the Islamrat as a new umbrella organization. The Goal of the KRM is to better unite German Muslims against religious extremism and to gain better representation from the German government.

The German Islamic Conference
Started in 2006, this organization brings together government officials and leaders from different Muslim organizations to discuss issues affecting Muslims today in order to create effective government programming and policy.

Islamic Community Milli Görüs IGMG
The major rival of the DTB, this organization challenges the Turkish state sponsored Islam in Germany. Founded n 1985 with links to Islamist parties in Germany, it has close to 600 prayer spaces in Germany. The larger German public is suspicious of IGMG as representative of Islamism and its intentions to create segregated Muslim societies.

Islamic Council (Islamrat)
This umbrella organization for German Muslims was founded in 1986 and is composed of 14 organizations, though most control rests with the IGMG and Milli Görüs. It represents about 140,000 Muslims of different ethnic backgrounds and controls about 700 prayer spaces.

Islam,de
List of Muslim congregations and umbrella organizations in Germany and other resources and news about Islam in Germany.

Islam in Germany
Provides extensive resources on Islam in Germany, with a detailed list of mosques by locale, with links to their websites.

Islam portal   
”Qantara.de sees itself as a bridge to the Islamic world and provides information and discussions on politics, culture, and social life in Germany. Arabic, Turkish, and English. Project partners are the Federal Centre for Political Education, the German international broadcasting service Deutsche Welle, Goethe Institut and the Institute for Foreign Cultural Relations.” 

Islam Research Directory (IRD)
“IRD forges links among institutions, experts and the media with academic interest in specific topics and countries of the Islamic and Arab world. Goethe Institute and the German Institute of Middle East Studies in Hamburg count among the partner organizations.” Though this service is discontinued its resources are still of great use. 

Mosques in Germany
Wikipedia list of mosques in Germany with photographs of exteriors and links to mosques.

Turkish Islamic Union for Religious Affairs (DITIB)
The central organization for Turkish Muslims in Germany, it was founded in 1984 and is funded through the Institution of Religious Affairs of Turkey.

The Union of Islamic Cultural Centers (VIK)
Founded in 1973, this is the third largest Muslim organization in Germany with more than 100,000 members. It is popular with second and third generation Turkish Muslims. 

Buddhism

Buddhist Centers in Germany
A list of Buddhist Centers with links to organization/center websites, demonstrating the range of Buddhist groups and activity in Germany.

The Buddhist House
Founded in 1924 by Paul Dahlke in Berlin, The Buddhist House was the first European Buddhist monastery. It became the center of Buddhist life in Germany and is now preserved as a National Heritage site. 

The German Buddhist Union (GBU)
The umbrella organization of Buddhists and Buddhist communities in Germany. The GBU was founded in 1955 and currently has 57 member-groups.

The Shaolin Temple Germany
The German branch of the Songshan Shaolin Temple of Henan, China was founded in 2001. The Abbot of the branch is trained and officially nominated to serve at a Shaolin mother temple in China.

Hinduism

Hari Om Mandir Temple
Located in Cologne, this Afghan Hindu temple was completed in 2004. The community was originally organized in 1987.

The Inder
A website for Hindus in Germany, maintained by second and third generation German Hindus. 

List of Hindu Temples
A list of Hindu Temples in Germany, including location and contact information.

Sri Ganesha Hindu Temple
Currently under construction, this will be the second largest Hindu Temple in Europe. The Earth Times article “Berlin to Get Largest Hindu Temple in Europe Outside Britain” provides a summary of the community and temple construction.

Sri Kamadchi Ampal Temple
Located in Hamm, this is the most well known temple in Germany and serves a Tamil Hindu community from Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu, India. Their website has a video describing the history of the temple’s construction as well as other useful media.

Sri Muthumariamman Temple
A Tamil Temple located in Hanover that serves about 5,000 Hindus. The temple structure was completed in 1995. The website has illustrative photographs of temple rituals. 

The Baha’i Faith

The Association for Baha'i Studies (GBS)
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha’is in Germany coordinates research, seminars, and conferences and publishes a biannual journal to promote Baha’i Studies in German.

Baha’i Central Website for Germany
Relevant news and organization information is provided on this website in German.

The Baha’i House of Worship
One of seven Baha’i Houses of Worship, the first and only one currently in Europe.

Chants from the European Baha’i House of Worship
A live recording of chants done inside the House of Worship.

Sikhism 

Devotional Performance
A devotional performance in the Gurdwara of Duisburg, Germany. 

Gurdwaras in Germany
Gurudwara.net listing of all gurdwaras in Germany.

Other Traditions 

German Society of Religious Philosophy  
“The German Society of Religious Philosophy was founded in 1999 as a non-profit-making organization. The Society’s objective is to promote and intensify research and discussion on philosophy of religion in the German-speaking world. It does not represent a certain doctrine but interprets religious philosophy as a critical philosophic debate about all factual issues, questions of meaning and importance with regard to the sphere of religions.”

Other Resources

News Coverage

Religious Diversity News Service

Many of the issues raised in this report continue to evolve rapidly. The Pluralism Project's Religious Diversity News contains up to date news articles on these topics, and on religion in Germany more generally. Click the links below to find articles relating to the following themes:

Other News Sources

 Other Reports and Country Studies

  • A General Profile of Germany is available on the US State Department website.
  • Wikipedia has a general article on Religion in Germany with links to subcategories
  • Eurel offers an excellent report on religion in Germany including history, social and religious data, and current debates.

Endnotes

[i] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[ii] Knox, Noelle, Newsweek (2005). Religion Takes a Back Seat In Western Europe. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-08-10-europe-religion-cover_x.htm.

[iii] Koenig, Matthias, Eurel (2010). Religious belonging and religious demography: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.eurel.info/EN/index.php?RuBintialeSS=Social%20and%20religious%20data%20&intrubrique=Religious%20belonging%20and%20religious%20demography&pais=20&rubrique=135&nompais=Germany.

[iv] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[v] Wikipedia (2010). Roman Catholicism in Germany. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism_in_Germany.

[vi] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[vii] Wikipedia (2010). Roman Catholicism in Germany. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism_in_Germany.

[viii] Koenig, Matthias and Miriam Schader, Eurel (2010). Religions and social welfare : Germany. Retrieved from http://www.eurel.info/EN/index.php?RuBintialeSS=Religions%20and%20society&intrubrique=Religions%20and%20social%20welfare&pais=20&rubrique=612&nompais=Germany.

[ix] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[x] Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Museum (2010). German Jews During the Holocaust. Retrieved from http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?ModuleId=10005469.

[xi] ibid.

[xii] Wikipedia (2010). German Jews. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism_in_Germany.

[xiii] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[xiv] Euro-Islam (2010). Islam in Germany. Retrieved from http://www.euro-islam.info/country-profiles/germany/.

[xv] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[xvi] Please see the listing of Religious Organizations at the end of this report for the names and websites of major German Muslim organizations.

[xvii] German Buddhist Union (2010). Basic Information on DBU in English. Retrieved from http://www.dharma.de/dbu/frameset.php?content=http://www.dharma.de/dbu/dbu_english.php.

[xviii] ibid.

[xix] Baumann, Martin, The Pluralism Project (2010). Immigrant Hinduism in Germany: Tamils from Sri Lanka and Their Temples. Retrieved from http://pluralism.org/resources/slideshow/hindgerm/index.php.

[xx] Fernandes, Irina, The Goethe Institut (2009). Prayer Centre in Europe: The Hindu Temple in Hamm. Retrieved from http://www.goethe.de/ges/phi/red/en4803052.htm. 

[xxi] Baumann, Martin, The Pluralism Project (2010). Immigrant Hinduism in Germany: Tamils from Sri Lanka and Their Temples. Retrieved from http://pluralism.org/resources/slideshow/hindgerm/index.php.

[xxii] Wikipedia (2010). Baha’i Faith in Germany. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith_in_Germany.

[xxiii] Religious Studies Media and Information Service (REMID) (2005). Religionen in Deutschland: Mitgliederzahlen. Retrieved from http://www.remid.de/remid_info_zahlen.htm.

[xxiv] Wikipedia (2010). Sikhism in Germany. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism_in_Germany.

[xxv] ibid.

[xxvi] Wikipedia (2010). Roman Catholicism in Germany. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_Germany.

[xxvii] US State Department (2009). International Religious Freedom Report: Germany. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127312.htm.

[xxviii] The Economist (2008). Germany's Turkish Minority. Retrieved on the Pew Forum website at http://pewforum.org/Religion-News/Germanys-Turkish-Minority.aspx. 

[xxix] Daily Times (2006). Bonn School Suspends Two Muslim Girls Over Burqa. Retrieved from http://www.pluralism.org/news/view/13213.

[xxx] The Economist (2009). God and Berlin God and Berlin. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13377308.

 

Pluralism Project Research Associate Katherine Merriman
March 2010



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